oioraed 

PE 

1475 

ii635w 

1922 


MELLISH 


THE  LIBRARY 

OF 
THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 
LOS  ANGELES 


THE  WRITING  OF 
MEDICAL    PAPERS 


BY 

MAUD  H.  MELLISH 

Editor  of  The  Mayo  Clinic  Publications 


PHILADELPHIA  AND  LONDON 

W.  B.  SAUNDERS  COMPANY 

1922 


Copyright.  1922,  by  W.  B.  Saunders  Company 


MADE  IN  U.  8.  A. 

PRESS  OF 

W.   B.  SAUNDERS  COMPANY 
PHILADELPHIA 


PE 

\HI? 

CONTENTS 


PAGE 

INTRODUCTION 9 

CHAPTER  I 
GOOD  USAGB ii 

CHAPTER  II 
VOCABULARY 14 

CHAPTER  III 
ITALICS 17 

CHAPTER  IV 
ABBREVIATIONS,  TABLES,  AND  MISCELLANY 21 

CHAPTER  V 
PUNCTUATION 32 

CHAPTER  VI 
MISCELLANEOUS  GRAMMATICAL  NOTES 43 

CHAPTER  VII 
DON'TS 61 

CHAPTER  VIII 
SUBJECT  MATTER:  LENGTH  OP  PAPERS 66 

CHAPTER  IX 
ARRANGEMENT:  THE  BEGINNING  AND  THE  END 70 

CHAPTER  X 
THE  OUTLINE 73 


6  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  XI  PAGE 

CONSTRUCTION 78 

CHAPTER  XII 
CASE  HISTORIES:  ABSTRACTS 83 

CHAPTER  XIII 
CHAPTER,  PARAGRAPH,  AND  SENTENCE 87 

CHAPTER  XIV 
REFERENCES 91 

CHAPTER  XV 
REVISION 94 

CHAPTER  XVI 
THE  TITLE 98 

CHAPTER  XVII 
VOLUME  OF  OUTPUT 100 

CHAPTER  XVIII 
THE  MANUSCRIPT 104 

CHAPTER  XIX 
THE  PROOF 108 

CHAPTER  XX 
QUOTED  MATERIAL,  INDEX,  AND  COPYRIGHT 113 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 115 

STANDARD  ABBREVIATIONS  FOR  MEDICAL  JOURNALS 117 

INDEX 147 


The  artist  uses  whatever  material  and  whatever 
forces  he  finds  at  hand,  but  he  does  not  allow  himself 
to  be  mastered  by  them.  And  when  he  has  finished 
his  work,  he  does  not  fall  down  before  it.  He  looks  at 
it  critically,  he  sees  its  limitations,  and  he  plans  a  new 
work  which  he  hopes  may  surpass  it. — Crothers. 


INTRODUCTION 

Many  men  and  women  who  unfortunately 
do  not  possess  the  art  of  writing  and  have  not 
acquired  its  usable  substitute,  the  craft  of 
writing,  have  yet  chosen  medicine  as  a  life- 
work,  for  success  in  which  they  should  be  able 
to  write  well  for  the  medical  profession.  They 
desire  therefore  to  acquire  the  craft  of  writing 
with  the  least  possible  effort  or  delay.  For 
these  there  is  a  need,  not  for  new  manuals,  but 
for  a  handbook  adapted  especially  to  their 
profession  and  including  the  essential  points  to 
be  found  in  general  textbooks.  The  present 
handbook  is  an  attempt  to  supply  this  need  in 
a  brief  form,  for  writers  of  medical  papers,  and 
for  those  who  edit,  or  read  proof  on  such  papers. 

Quotations  have  been  used  freely  where  the 
thought  has  been  already  happily  expressed 
by  others.  The  topics  have  been  reduced  to 
a  minimum,  and  rules  have  been  made  definite, 
even  dogmatic,  that  they  may  be  easy  to  refer 
to  and  follow.  The  subject  matter  has  been 
arranged  in  two  parts:  specifically  technical, 
Chapters  I  to  VII,  and  general,  Chapters  VIII 
to  XX. 


10  INTRODUCTION 

It  is  hoped  that  the  book  may  help  untrained 
and  partly  trained  writers  to  prepare  for  publi- 
cation articles  that  will  convey  information 
with  brevity,  accuracy,  and  clearness,  and 
adhere  to  the  accepted  forms  of  present  day 
usage.  The  volume  is  necessarily  incomplete; 
the  excuse  for  this  is  the  purpose  in  view;  its 
justification  rests  with  those  who  use  the  book. 

The  author  takes  this  opportunity  to  express 
her  appreciation  of  the  books  quoted,  and  the 
pleasure  and  benefit  she  has  derived  from  their 
study. 


THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 


CHAPTER  I 
GOOD   USAGE 

Every  man  has  the  fullest  liberty  to  indulge  in  any  sort  of  linguistic 
asceticism  under  the  illusion  that  he  is  setting  an  example  of  linguistic 
holiness.  It  is  only  when  he  insists  that  others  cannot  be  pure  without 
accepting  his  notions  of  purity  that  he  becomes  objectionable. — Lounsbury. 

The  above  and  the  following  quotations 
apply  with  particular  fitness  to  the  language 
of  the  science  of  medicine,  with  its  ever  chang- 
ing theories  and  methods,  evolving  in  turn 
new  words  and  phrases,  some  of  the  more 
worthy  of  which  in  time  may  be  adopted  into 
the  vocabulary  of  medicine. 

Writers  should  not  be  too  ready  to  follow 
others  in  the  misuse  of  terms  or  words.  The 
medical  vocabulary  of  today  is  by  no  means 
meager  and  the  practical  writer  will  do  well  to 
confine  himself  to  that  which  is  already  in  estab- 
lished use.  The  coining  of  words  of  doubtful 
value  obviously  is  not  the  function  of  busy  men 
or  women  whose  privilege  it  is  to  select  from 


12  THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

an  established  vocabulary  those  best  adapted  to 
their  purposes.  It  is  often  desirable  to  give  new 
meanings  to  old  words,  but  this  too  may  be- 
come a  much  abused  practice  and  may  be  safely 
eliminated  from  ordinary  writing. 

The  use  of  unnecessary  foreign  words  or 
phrases  when  English  serves  the  purpose  as 
well  or  better  is  often  nothing  more  than 
affectation,  and  should  be  rigidly  guarded 
against  and  discouraged.  The  effect  on  the 
reader  of  such  construction  is  usually  not 
what  the  writer  would  desire;  it  is  apt  to 
irritate  rather  than  to  flatter. 

Yet  to  be  regarded  as  a  "purist  in  style"  I  have  no  claim, 
and  certainly  no  ambition.  It  is  not  with  my  goodwill  that 
the  "reviewer"  too  often  busies  himself  with  details  of  style 
to  the  neglect  of  the  stuff  of  a  book.  The  pedant  is  not 
confined  to  the  academy,  and  to  cavil  at  words  is  easier  by 
far  than  to  arrive  at  a  judgment  upon  the  matter  of  them. 
That  in  literature,  as  in  society,  good  form  is  useful,  we  are 
now  to  learn,  but  in  the  amenities  of  form  it  shall  not  be 
said  of  us  that  in  a  coxcombry  of  manners  we  become  too 
exquisite  for  the  primary  forces  of  the  human  mind.1 

A  language,  like  a  living  creature,  bears  its  whole  history 
in  its  own  being;  it  is  what  it  is  today  because  of  what  it 
did  and  was  yesterday.  Usage  is  the  final  law  of  language, 
and  violations  of  usage,  though  they  may  on  occasion  be 
justifiable,  are  linguistic  errors.  What  was  once  an  error 
may  become  usage;  it  then  ceases  to  be  an  error  and  becomes 
correct.14 


GOOD  USAGE  13 

Obscurity,  however,  may  exist  or  be  avoided  in  ways 
that  have  nothing  to  do  with  either  grammatical  or  rhetorical 
rules.  A  writer,  for  instance,  may  use  obsolete  or  provincial 
forms  of  expression,  or  foreign  words,  in  doing  either  of 
which  he  lays  himself  open  to  the  charge  of  using  bad  English 
as  well  as  obscure  diction.  A  foreign  word,  of  course,  may 
or  may  not  be  clear,  according  to  the  degree  of  knowledge 
of  the  person  to  whom  it  is  addressed.  It  used  to  be  pre- 
sumed that  every  well  educated  person  knew  Latin,  and  it 
was  therefore  admissible  to  use  Latin  words  and  quotations 
quite  freely  in  any  work  addressed  to  people  of  education. 
But  in  our  time,  education  does  not  follow  fixed  lines,  and 
it  is  quite  possible  that  one  may  be  well  educated  without 
a  knowledge  of  the  classical  tongues.  Much  Latin,  or  even 
any  Latin  at  all,  therefore,  may  sin  against  clearness.  The 
same  may  be  said  of  French,  German,  and  other  languages.6 


Choose  words  already  approved  and  in  use. 
Hesitate  to  give  new  meanings  to  old  words. 
Do  not  invent  words. 
Use  only  English  words  and  phrases. 


CHAPTER  II 
VOCABULARY 

If  the  word  first  accepted  is  precisely  the  word  wanted,  to  vary  it  is 
to  vary  the  sense,  to  confuse  the  argument,  and  to  vex  the  reader. — 
Lounsbury. 

The  accurate  use  of  a  large  vocabulary  of 
words  clear  and  sharp  in  their  meaning  marks 
the  scholarly  writer.  In  the  study  of  the  craft 
of  writing  the  acquiring  of  such  a  vocabulary 
and  of  ready  skill  in  its  use  should  be  the 
first  consideration.  New  words  or  those  new 
to  the  student  should  be  painstakingly  investi- 
gated before  they  are  appropriated  and  utilized. 
In  this  way  only  can  accuracy  in  the  use  of 
many  words  be  attained. 

Nevertheless,  while  a  meager  supply  of 
words  is  often  a  handicap  to  convincing  and 
pleasing  diction,  in  many  instances  writers  of 
medical  papers  will  find  it  more  important  to 
clear  up  their  vocabularies  than  to  enlarge 
them.  Irrelevant  words  and  words  remote 
in  application  should  be  unhesitatingly  elimi- 
nated. If  suitable  ones  cannot  be  found  to 
take  their  places,  the  manuscript  should  be 

14 


VOCABULARY  1 5 

reconstructed  so  that  it  will  read  logically  and 
harmoniously  without  them. 

No  language  has  so  complex  and  varied  a  vocabulary 
as  English.  Our  everyday  speech  includes  a  multitude  of 
words  from  all  periods  of  history,  and  every  quarter  of  the 
globe.  All  the  great  civilizations  have  contributed  to  our 
vocabulary.  Indeed,  the  history  of  English  words  is  the 
history  of  our  civilization  in  all  its  aspects." 

Out  of  the  army  of  terms  that  offer  themselves  for  admis- 
sion in  every  generation,  but  a  very  limited  number  find 
lodgment  in  the  speech.  Nor  do  these,  save  in  the  rarest 
instances,  displace  or  make  obsolete  those  already  there.13 

The  habit  which  injures  one's  vocabulary  most  is  the 
habit  of  using  crystallized  phrases.  Thought  and  the  real 
phrasing  of  thought  soon  become  impossible.14 

When  we  call  a  word  popular  we  do  not  mean  that  it 
is  a  favorite  word,  but  simply  that  it  belongs  to  the  people 
as  a  whole,  that  is,  it  is  everybody's  word,  not  the  possession 
of  a  limited  number.  When  we  call  a  word  learned  we  do 
not  mean  that  it  is  used  by  scholars  alone,  but  simply  that 
its  presence  in  the  English  vocabulary  is  due  to  books  and 
the  cultivation  of  literature  rather  than  to  the  actual  needs 
of  ordinary  conversation. 

Here  is  one  of  the  main  differences  between  a  cultivated 
and  an  uncultivated  language.  Both  possess  a  large  stock 
of  popular  words,  but  the  cultivated  language  is  also  rich 
in  learned  words,  with  which  the  ruder  tongue  has  not  pro- 
vided itself  simply  because  it  has  never  felt  the  need  of  them. 
There  is  nothing  abnormal  about  slang.  In  making  it 
men  proceed  in  precisely  the  same  manner  as  in  making 
language  and  under  the  same  natural  laws.  The  motive, 
however,  is  somewhat  different,  for  slang  is  not  meant  simply 
to  express  one's  thoughts.  Its  coinage  and  circulation  come 


1 6  THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

rather  from  the  wish  of  the  individual  to  distinguish  him- 
self by  oddity  or  grotesque  humor.  Hence  slang  is  seldom 
controlled  by  any  regard  for  propriety,  and  it  bids  deliberate 
defiance  to  all  considerations  of  good  taste.11 


Acquire  a  large  and  varied  vocabulary  from 
which  to  select  the  most  fitting  words. 

Do  not  repeat  a  word  or  phrase  needlessly, 
although  repetition  is  preferable  to  awkward 
or  labored  avoidance  of  it. 

Before  using  unfamiliar  words,  thoroughly 
investigate  their  meaning. 

Use  words  accurately. 

Discard  irrelevant  and  needless  words. 

Avoid  crystallized  phrases. 


CHAPTER   III 
ITALICS 

Italics  should  be  used  sparingly  to  express  emphasis.  The  practice 
of  italicizing  words  too  frequently  spoils  rather  than  adds  to  the  effect, 
and  wearies  the  reader. — Manly  and  Powell. 

The  gradual  disuse  of  italics  as  a  means  of 
emphasis,  and  for  such  foreign  words  as  may 
not  have  been  discarded  from  the  English 
language,  is  welcomed  by  readers  who  are 
invariably  annoyed  by  this  method  of  attract- 
ing their  attention.  Italics  in  English  and 
their  substitute,  the  wide  spacing  of  the  letters 
of  a  word  so  common  in  German  literature, 
equally  insult  the  intelligence  of  the  reader. 
Their  use  for  the  purpose  of  calling  attention 
to  humor  or  irony  is  undignified.  However, 
there  are  various  uses  to  which  italics  may  be 
properly  applied,  for  example: 

Inserted  subheads  in  papers;  foreign  words; 
symbols  (a);  (fr),  (c}>  and  so  forth,  used  to 
indicate  subdivisions  when  beginning  a  para- 
graph; particular  letters  of  the  alphabet  when 
referred  to  as  such  (the  letter  u,  a  small  v) ; 

2  17 


1 8  THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

and  titles  of  books  or  articles  quoted  in  regular 
matter,  unquoted  in  footnotes,  and  so  forth. 

To  indicate  in  manuscript  the  use  of  italics, 
a  line  should  be  drawn  under  the  letters,  words, 
or  sentences.  Quotation  marks  are  not  used 
with  an  italicized  word. 

Italicize  scientific  names  of  genera  and 
species  when  used  together,  such  as  Stegomyia 
calopus,  Streptococcus  pyogenes,  Bacillus  tetani, 
Bacillus  subtilis,  and  Micrococcus  nitrificans. 
Many  names  of  genera  have  become  naturalized 
as  common  nouns  and  should  be  set  in  Roman 
when  standing  alone,  for  example,  bacillus, 
streptococcus,  staphylococcus,  treponema,  spiro- 
chete,  micrococcus,  blastomyces,  ankylostoma, 
anopheles,  paramecium,  and  streptothrix. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  LIST  OF  WORDS  STILL  ITALICIZED 

ab  ovo  ibid,  (ibidem)  par  excellence 

amour-propre  idem  persona  non  grata 

bete  noire  in  re  raison  d'etre 

chef-d'oeuvre  inter  alia  savoir  faire 

coup  d'etat  intra  vitam  sui  generis 

esprit  de  corps  ipso  facto  tour  de  force 

ex  parte  loc.  cit.  (loco  citato)  vis  £  tergo 

ex  post  facto  mens  sana  in  corpore  sano  vis  medicatrix 

naturae 


ITALICS 


ILLUSTRATIVE  LIST  OF  WORDS  No  LONGER  ITALICIZED 


ad  infinitum 

fete 

per  rectum 

aide  de  camp 

fistula  in  ano 

per  se 

alma  mater 

furunculosis  orientalis 

personnel 

alveolar  carcinoma  grand  mal 

petit  mal 

anlage 

gyrus  angularis 

postmortem 

a  posteriori 

habeas  corpus 

prima  facie 

a  priori 

habitue 

privat  decent 

apropos 

in  extenso 

pro  and  con  (tra) 

attache 

in  loco 

prot6g6 

bas-relief 

in  maximo 

pro  tern  (pore) 

bona  fide 

'n  minim  o 

questionnaire 

cafe 

innuendo 

queue 

charge  d'affaires 

in  situ 

regime 

clientele 

in  statu  quo 

rendezvous 

confrere 

in  utero 

resume 

connoisseur 

in  vitro 

reveille 

creche 

in  vivo 

rigor  mortis 

criterion 

locum  tenens 

r61e 

culdesac 

massage 

savant 

data 

melee 

(sic) 

debris 

modus  operandi 

sine  die 

debut 

morale 

sine  qua  non 

decollet^ 

motif 

sobriquet     . 

denouement 

naive 

soir6e 

de  novo 

net 

status  epilepticus 

depot 

niche 

terra  firma 

doctrinaire 

ail 

tete-a-tete 

eclat 

nom  de  plume 

tonneau 

elite 

os  calcis 

"treppe" 

ennui 

papier  mache 

umlaut 

entree 

per  annum 

verbatim 

erratum 

per  capita 

versus 

ex  officio 

per  cent 

via 

expose 

per  contra 

vice  versa 

facade 

per  os 

vis-a-vis 

facsimile 

vise 

2O 

Avoid  the  use  of  italics  and  the  wide  spac- 
ing of  words  for  emphasis. 

Use  italics  for  subheads  in  manuscript,  for 
figures  and  letters  subdividing  paragraphs  or 
sentences,  and  so  forth. 

Italicize  foreign  words  until  their  frequent 
use  results  in  their  adoption  into  English. 

Underscore  with  a  single  line  to  indicate 
italics. 


CHAPTER  IV 
ABBREVIATIONS,   TABLES,  AND   MISCELLANY 

Abbreviations  are  in  bad  taste  in  literary  compositions  of  any  kind, 
including  letters.  Use  no  abbreviations  except  those  which  you  know  are 
employed,  not  by  the  newspapers  and  writers  of  common-place  business 
letters,  but  by  recognized  masters  of  English  prose. — Woolley. 

While  standard  abbreviations  may  be  used 
quite  correctly  in  technical  papers,  tabula- 
tions, and  so  forth,  they  should  in  general  be 
used  sparingly,  and  they  should  always  be 
used  consistently.  Compilations  of  tabula- 
tions and  statistics  should  not  be  abbreviated 
in  one  column  and  then,  because  space  seems 
to  permit,  spelled  out  in  the  next  column. 
It  is  quite  possible  for  the  casual  writer  to  be 
wholly  inappreciative  of  the  time  and  care 
expended  by  editors  in  recasting  and  checking 
tabulated  data.  The  writer  himself  should 
experience  the  satisfaction  which  follows  the 
accomplishment  of  an  orderly  grouping  of 
figures  and  statistics.  In  arranging  tabula- 
tions the  size  of  the  journal  page  must  be  con- 
sidered. Data  should  be  condensed  to  fit  the 
space.  A  printed  table  may  be  continued 


22  THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

on  the  next  page;  it  should  not  be  folded. 
Definite  proportions  should  be  adhered  to  in 
tabulating  material  for  lantern  slides.  The 
proportion  should  conform  to  the  size  and 
shape  of  the  slide.  A  space  10  by  8  inches 
should  not  be  exceeded  for  the  typewritten 
copy.  The  amount  of  reduction  within  this 
limit  and  the  excellence  of  the  reproduction 
will  depend  largely  on  the  skill  of  the  statis- 
tician. The  figures  and  lettering  should  be 
very  black  against  a  white  background  in 
order  to  bring  out  a  sharp  projection  on  the 
screen.  The  same  rules  apply  to  making 
charts.  Specially  prepared  paper,  ruled  in 
brown  or  black  should  be  used  and  the  trac- 
ings made  in  black. 

Each  table  should  be  provided  with  a  descriptive  heading. 

If  there  is  more  than  one  table,  all  should  be  numbered 
consecutively,  Table  i,  Table  2,  Table  3,  and  so  forth. 

Words  or  letters  of  the  alphabet  should  not  be  used  when 
Arabic  numerals  or  mathematical  signs  can  be  used. 

Vertical  (not  horizontal)  columns  should  consist  of  like 
data. 

Condensation  should  be  studied.  Often  a  column  can  be 
condensed  by  putting  in  the  heading  a  factor  common  to 
all  the  entries  in  the  column.3 

The  author  should  indicate  in  the  manu- 
script about  where  he  wishes  tables  placed. 


ABBREVIATIONS,  TABLES,  AND  MISCELLANY    23 

Abbreviate  volume,  number,  division,  chap- 
ter, article,  section,  page,  column,  line,  note, 
and  figure  followed  by  their  number  in  foot- 
notes and  in  bibliographic  matter;  and  abbre- 
viate the  word  following  after  the  number  to 
denote  continuance  or  sequence.  Abbreviate 
figure  at  the  beginning  of  legends  and  when 
it  is  placed  in  parenthesis  in  a  sentence  or  at 
the  close  of  a  sentence.  Write  the  word  in 
full  when  it  occurs  in  the  text.  Example: 

Fig.  i.  The  crystals  of  the  amino  form  of 
thyroxin,  shown  also  in  Figure  2. 

Fig.  2.  The  solution  becomes  turbid  and 
fine  branching  crystals  separate  (Fig.  i). 

The  common  designations  of  weights  and 
measures  in  the  metric  system,  the  symbols 
of  measurement  in  common  use,  should  be 
abbreviated  when  following  numerals  and  time. 


24  THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

A  PARTIAL  LIST  OF  STANDARD  ABBREVIATIONS 

alternating  current a.-c. 

centigrade C. 

centimeters cm. 

cubic cu. 

cubic  centimeters c.c. 

direct  current d.-c. 

Fahrenheit F. 

feet ft. 

gallons gal. 

grains gr. 

gram-calories gm.-cal. 

grams gm. 

hours hr. 

inches in. 

kilogram-calories kg.-cal. 

kilogram-meters kg.-m. 

kilograms kg. 

kilometers km. 

kilowatts kw. 

meter-kilograms m.-kg. 

meters m. 

milligrams mg. 

millimeters mm. 

minutes min. 

ounces oz. 

pounds lb. 

seconds sec. 

square sq. 

kilovolt-amperes kv.-a. 

kilovolts kv. 

yards yd. 


Spell  out  all  numbers  at  the  beginning   of 
sentences. 


ABBREVIATIONS,  TABLES,  AND  MISCELLANY    25 

Spell  out  all  numbers  less  than  three  figures, 
except  those  denoting  blood  count,  respiration, 
pulse,  temperature,  specific  gravity,  weight, 
length,  area,  capacity,  degrees,  percentages, 
ratios,  and  so  forth. 

Spell  out  all  fractions  except  decimals  (one- 
half  of  a  pound;  one-half  of  a  mile;  three- 
quarters  of  a  dollar;  2.5  inches). 

Spell  out  length  of  time  (fifteen  minutes; 
fifteen  hours;  fifteen  years). 

Spell  out  months  except  when  necessary  to 
abbreviate  in  tabulated  material  (January  i, 
1922).  When  two  years  are  hyphenated, 
set  both  in  full  (1921-1922). 

Spell  out  centuries :  right,  nineteenth  century ; 
wrong,  1 9th  century;  right,  the  nineties;  wrong, 
the  90*5. 

Do  not  spell  out  Mr.  Mrs.,  and  Dr. 

Abbreviate  Professor,  President,  Secretary, 
Superintendent,  Surgeon,  Colonel,  and  Captain 
before  the  first  name  or  initials,  but  not  before 
the  family  name  alone :  Capt.  Charles  Albright ; 
Captain  Albright;  Col.  Thomas  R.  Manning; 
Colonel  Manning. 

Do  not  abbreviate  names  of  persons:  right, 
Thomas  R.  Manning;  wrong,  Thos.  R.  Man- 
ning. 


26  THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

Degrees    after    names    are    abbreviated    as 
follows : 

Bachelor  of  Arts B.  A. 

Bachelor  of  Science B.  S. 

Bachelor  of  Law B.  L. 

Bachelor  of  Divinity B.  D. 

Bachelor  of  Laws LL.  B. 

Bachelor  of  Philosophy Ph.  B. 

Graduate  in  Pharmacy Ph.  G. 

Bachelor  of  Medicine M.  B. 

Master  of  Arts M.  A. 

Master  of  Science M.  S. 

Master  of  Surgery M.  S. 

Master  of  Dental  Surgery M.  D.  S. 

Doctor  of  Philosophy Ph.  D. 

Doctor  of  Medicine M.  D. 

Doctor  of  Divinity D.  D. 

Doctor  of  Laws J.  D.  or  LL.  D. 

Doctor  of  Letters Litt.  D. 

Doctor  of  Science D.  Sc. 

Doctor  of  Dental  Surgery D.D.S. 

Fellow  of  the  American  College  of 

Surgeons F.A.C.S. 

Fellow  of  the  Royal  College  of  Physi- 
cians (England) F.R.C.P. 

Fellow  of  the  Royal  College  of  Sur- 
geons (London,  Edinburgh,  Ire- 
land)    F.R.C.S. 

Abbreviate  Saint  (St.  Paul,  St.  Louis). 
Do   not   abbreviate   Fort   or   Mount    (Fort 
Dodge,  Mount  Vernon). 


ABBREVIATIONS,  TABLES,  AND  MISCELLANY    27 

Set  in  figures  the  day  of  the  month  and  the 
year  (May  19,  1922);  time  of  day  (n  a.m., 
3 130  p.m.) ;  and  numbers  indicating  serial  po- 
sition (page  10,  Case  3,  Table  i,  Vol.  xx). 

Set  in  figures  sums  of  money  ($5.50). 

Set  in  figures  practically  all  data  in  tabula- 
tions. 

All  of  the  foregoing  rules  are  subject  to 
variations,  but  such  variations  should  not  be 
accepted  as  precedents. 

ABBREVIATION  OF  NAMES  OF  STATES 

Spell  out  Cuba,  Guam,  Samoa,  Utah,  and 
as  a  rule  all  state  names  containing  only  four 
or  five  letters. 


Ala. 

Ga. 

Me. 

N.  H. 

Que. 

Alta. 

H.  I. 

Mich. 

N..J. 

R.  I. 

Ariz. 

la. 

Minn. 

N.  M. 

Sask. 

Ark. 

Ida. 

Miss. 

N.  S. 

S.  C. 

B.  C. 

111. 

Mo. 

N.  Y. 

S.  D. 

Calif. 

Ind. 

Mont. 

O. 

Tenn. 

C.  Z. 

Kan. 

Neb. 

Okla. 

Tex. 

Colo. 

Ky. 

Nev. 

Ont. 

Va. 

Conn. 

La. 

N.  B. 

Ore. 

Vt. 

Del. 

Manit. 

N.  C. 

Pa 

Wash. 

D.  C. 

Mass. 

N.  D. 

P.  I. 

W.  Va. 

Fla. 

Md. 

N.  F. 

P.  R. 

Wis. 

Wyo. 

28  THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

NAMES  OF  CITIES  AFTER  WHICH  STATE  MAY  BE  OMITTED 
Baltimore  Detroit  Philadelphia 


Boston 

Indianapolis 

Pittsburgh 

Brooklyn 

Los  Angeles 

Salt  Lake  City 

Buffalo 

Minneapolis 

San  Francisco 

Chicago 

New  Orleans 

Seattle 

Cincinnati 

New  York 

St.  Louis 

Cleveland 

Oklahoma  City 

St.  Paul 

Denver 

Omaha 

Ordinarily  write  out  specific  gravity;  in  tables  other 
condensed  matter  abbreviate  to  sp.  gr.,  1.078. 

Never  abbreviate  names  of  foreign  countries. 

Write  4  by  5  by  7  inches,  not  4  x  5  x  7  in.  Write  one- 
sixth  by  volume,  not  1/6  x  vol. 

Except  where  condensation  is  an  object,  as  in  tables, 
write  eighth-molecular,  not  m/8;  write  tenth-normal,  not 
decinormal  or  N/io.  But  if  it  is  desirable  for  some  special 
reason  to  use  the  fraction,  use  the  slant  instead  of  the  hori- 
zontal line  to  separate  numerator  and  denominator. 

Write  fourth  cervical,  second  lumbar,  and  so  forth,  not 
C  IV,  L  2,  and  so  forth. 

In  ordinary  matter  spell  out  dosages.  Write  4  grains, 
three  times  a  day,  not  gr.  iv,  t.  i.  d. 

In  a  trade  name  the  expression  &  Co.  is  used;  otherwise 
Company  is  spelled  out. 

The  abbreviation  for  the  expression  i  to  1,000  is.  i  :  1,000. 
A  thin  space  after  the  colon  is  desirable.  Thin  spaces  are 
also  to  be  used  with  all  signs,  as  the  plus,  minus,  and  sign 
of  equality. 

Never  use  ditto  marks;  if  they  occur  in  the  copy  the  words 
for  which  they  stand  are  to  be  spelled  out. 

Indicate  the  magnification  of  photomicrographs  by  the 
sign  of  multiplication  and  the  number,  as: 

Fig.  i  (Case  i). — Section  of  sarcoma  (Xioo).2 


ABBREVIATIONS,  TABLES,  AND  MISCELLANY     29 

FOOTNOTES 

Use  superior  figures  in  the  text  instead  of  the 
star,  dagger,  and  so  forth.  They  are  less 
conspicuous  and  the  number  may  be  extended 
indefinitely.  If  symbols  are  used  they  are 
placed  in  the  following  order:  star,  dagger, 
double  dagger,  section,  parallel  lines,  and 
paragraph  (*,  f,  t  &,  II,  ID- 

A  note  at  the  end  of  an  article,  not  referred 
to  in  the  text,  is  written  as  follows: 

Note. — Dr.  Jones  exhibited  a  number  of 
animals  with  encephalitis. 

CAPITALS 

Capitalize  only  the  first  word  in  English 
titles  of  publications  (books,  pamphlets,  docu- 
ments, periodicals,  reports,  and  so  forth)  and 
their  divisions  (parts,  chapters,  sections,  and 
articles),  and  in  subjects  of  lectures,  papers, 
and  toasts  when  they  appear  either  in  biblio- 
graphic matter  or  in  the  body  of  the  text. 

In  foreign  titles,  in  addition  to  capitalizing  the  first  word, 
follow  these  general  rules: 

(a)  In  Latin  titles  capitalize  proper  nouns  and  adjectives 
derived  therefrom. 

(6)  In  French,  Italian,  Spanish,  and  Scandinavian  titles 
capitalize  proper  nouns  but  not  adjectives  derived  therefrom. 

(c)  In  German  and  Danish  capitalize  all  nouns  but  not 


30  THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

the  adjectives,  except  German  adjectives  derived  from  the 
names  of  persons. 

(d)  In  Dutch  capitalize  all  nouns  and  all  adjectives 
derived  from  proper  nouns. 

Capitalize  titles  of  ancient  manuscripts  (abbreviation: 
MS  in  the  singular;  MSS  in  the  plural). 

In  botanical  and  zoological  matter  capitalize  the  names 
of  species  if  derived  from  names  of  persons  or  from  generic 
names,  but  in  geological  and  medical  matter  never  capitalize 
the  names  of  species. 

To  indicate  on  the  manuscript  (copy)  that  capitals  are 
desired,  draw  three  lines,  and  to  indicate  small  capitals 
draw  two  lines  under  the  letter  or  word  to  be  capitalized. 
It  is  also  a  frequent  practice  to  express  these  directions 
by  writing  caps,  s.  c.  (small  caps),  or  1.  c.  (lower  case),  or 
c.  and  1.  c.  (caps  and  lower  case)  in  the  margin  as  a  direction 
for  a  line  or  passage  to  be  so  treated. 

To  indicate  italic,  underscore  with  a  straight  line.  For 
italic  capitals  underscore  with  three  lines  and  add  the  words 
italic  caps  in  the  margin. 

To  indicate  black  face  or  bold  face  type  underscore  with 
a  wavy  line,  thus  ~~~~~: 

Quoted  matter  exceeding  five  or  six  lines  of  type  is  usually 
set  in  type  of  smaller  size  than  the  body  of  the  text.  It 
will  save  trouble  to  the  copy-reader  and  the  printer  and 
often  avoid  inconsistent  typographical  treatment  if  such 
matter  is  single-spaced  when  written  on  the  typewriter, 
or  is  otherwise  set  off  from  the  body  of  the  text  in  the  copy.14 


Use  standard  abbreviations  only. 
Use  abbreviations  sparingly  and  consistently. 
When  necessary  abbreviate  statistical  data 
in  charts,  tables,  and  so  forth. 


ABBREVIATIONS,  TABLES,  AND  MISCELLANY    31 

Arrange  tabulated  material  for  the  printed 
page  so  that  folding  will  not  be  necessary. 

Arrange  material  for  lantern  slides  within 
a  prescribed  limit  proportional  to  the  dimen- 
sions of  the  slide. 

Use  superior  figures  in  the  text  to  indicate 
footnotes. 

Follow  general  rules  in  capitalizing. 


CHAPTER  V 
PUNCTUATION 

When  to  use  a  mark  and  what  mark  to  use,  are  determined  by  reason 
or  by  convention.  The  full  value  of  marks  is  rarely  understood  even  by 
educated  and  cultured  people. — Klein. 

It  is  obvious  that  a  limited  number  of  even 
well  selected  rules  is  of  little  value  in  deciding 
points  of  punctuation.  Differences  of  opinion 
alone  demand  detailed  explanations  and  ex- 
amples. Obviously,  also,  it  is  unnecessary 
to  call  attention  to  the  importance  of  some- 
what more  than  an  intuitive  knowledge  of 
punctuation.  The  writer  should  study  thor- 
oughly a  well  recognized  treatise  on  the  sub- 
ject before  assuming  that  he  can  make  his 
meaning  clear  with  marks  of  punctuation. 
If  such  study  is  not  feasible  he  should  place 
marks  cautiously  and  be  guided  in  their  further 
use  by  the  printer  and  the  editor. 

Close  punctuation  is  characterized  by  the 
use  of  many  commas;  the  form  was  in  common 
use  in  English  in  the  eighteenth  century  and 
is  still  used  in  French.  Open  punctuation  is 
characterized  by  the  avoidance  of  all  point- 
s' 


PUNCTUATION  33 

ing  not  clearly  required  by  the  construction; 
it  now  prevails  in  the  best  English  usage. 
In  some  cases,  as  in  certain  legal  papers,  title 
pages,  and  so  forth,  punctuation  is  wholly 
omitted. 


The  function  of  marks  is  twofold: 

1.  To  reveal  the  real  meaning  of  printed  language. 

2.  To  reveal  such  meaning  at  a  glance. 
Marks  perform  this  function  in  three  ways: 

1.  By  breaking  up  apparent   groups  of  words,  which 

readily  form  themselves  into  new  groups. 

2.  By  showing  the  relations  between  groups. 

3.  By  characterizing  a  group  of  words. 

Every  group  of  words,  as  well  as  every  word,  sustains 
some  relation  to  another  word  or  group  of  words  in  the 
sentence  or  paragraph.  Somewhat  exact  knowledge  of  this 
relation  is  possessed  by  everybody,  even  by  the  child  just 
beginning  to  talk.  It  is  part  of  one's  common  sense;  but 
unfortunately  many  textbooks  on  language,  used  in  the 
grade  school,  the  high  school,  .and  the  college,  bury  the 
common-sense  knowledge  of  the  pupil  under  technicalities 
that  are  never  mastered.  Tn  like  manner  the  technicalities 
of  punctuation  have  made  the  art  so  difficult  that  it  may 
be  said  to  be  almost  a  lost  art.  We  are  attempting  to  re- 
discover it  through  our  common  sense. 

While  we  must  recognize  the  fact  that  for  some  years 
there  has  been  a  tendency  among  good  writers  to  use  fewer 
marks,  we  should  disregard  any  such  tendency  based  upon 
a  lack  of  appreciation  of  the  value  of  marks  or,  more  specif- 
ically, upon  ignorance  of  the  fine  sense  relations  of  language 
so  easily  overlooked  when  not  indicated  by  marks  with 
meanings." 
3 


34  THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

THE  FOLLOWING  GENERAL  RULES  DEFINE  PRESENT  GOOD 
USAGE  OF  PUNCTUATION 

THE  PERIOD  (.) 

The  period  is  used : 

1.  After  a  complete  declarative  or  imperative  sentence. 

2.  After  an  abbreviated  word  or  a  single  or  double  initial 
letter  representing  a  word,  as  etc.,  viz.,  Mrs.,  i.  e.,  e.  g.,  LL.  D., 

PP. 

THE   COMMA    (,) 

The  comma  is  used: 

1.  To  set  off  a  substantive  used  in  direct  address,   as: 
You  see,  John,  how  I  stand. 

2.  To  set  off  appositives,  as:  Vienna,  the  capital  of  Austria. 

3.  To    set    off    absolute    phrases,    as:     The    temperature 
being  normal,  the  patient  was  dismissed. 

4.  To  set  off  any  word  or  phrase  which  has  a  parenthetic 
function  but  for  which  parenthesis  marks  or  double  dashes 
are  not  suitable,  as:    His  refusal  to  my  offer,  however,   I 
don't  understand. 

5.  To  set  off  a  geographical  name  explaining  a  preceding 
name. 

6.  To  separate  coordinate  clauses  connected   by   one  of 
the  simple  conjunctions,  as:    The  train  moved  swiftly,  but 
Turner  arrived  too  late. 

7.  To  set  off  a  dependent  clause  preceding  its  principal 
clause.     When  the  dependent  clause  follows  the   principal 
clause  a  comma  is  usually  unnecessary.     Example:    When 
darkness  comes,  the  candles  are  lit. 

8.  To  indicate  every  distinct   pause  within  a  sentence, 
except   the   pauses  for  which  other  marks  of   punctuation 
are  appropriate. 

Q.  To  indicate  separation  between  any  sentence  elements 
that  might,  in  reading,  be  improperly  joined  or  misunder- 
stood, were  there  no  comma,  as:  On  the  path  leading  to 


PUNCTUATION  35 

the  cellar  steps  were  heard;  and:  On  the  path  leading  to 
the  cellar,  steps  were  heard. 

Two  adjectives  modifying  the  same  noun  should  be  sepa- 
rated by  commas  if  they  are  coordinate  in  thought;  but  if 
the  first  adjective  is  felt  to  be  superposed  on  the  second, 
they  should  not  be  separated  by  a  comma,  as:  A  faithful, 
sincere  friend.  A  big  gray  cat. 

In  a  series  of  the  form  a,  b,  and  c,  a  comma  should  precede 
the  conjunction.  The  practice  of  omitting  the  comma  before 
the  conjunction  is  illogical  and  is  not  favored  by  the  best 
modern  usage. 

Often  a  phrase  or  clause,  though  grammatically  a  modifier 
of  a  preceding  substantive,  is  felt  to  be  not  an  adjunct  to 
that  substantive,  but  rather  a  statement  added  to  the  main 
assertion  of  the  sentence.  Such  phrases  and  clauses  are 
called  nonrestrictive.  They  should  always  be  set  off  by 
commas,  as:  Washington  Irving,  whose  personality  was 
genial  and  charming,  became  very  popular  in  England. 
When  a  phrase  or  clause,  modifying  a  preceding  substantive, 
is  felt  to  be  essentially  a  modifier  restricting  that  substantive, 
it  is  called  a  restrictive  phrase  or  clause.  Such  phrases  and 
clauses  are  not  to  be  set  off  by  commas,  as:  Every  man  who 
holds  such  an  opinion  is  by  tendency  a  criminal. 

After  an  interjection  a  comma  is  often  preferable  to  an 
exclamation  point. 

Expressions  like  he  said,  preceding  direct  quotations  in 
narrative,  and  such  expressions  preceding  short  direct  quota- 
tions in  general,  should  be  followed  by  a  comma. 

Guard  against  the  use  of  commas  where  they  are  not 
necessary.  As  a  rule,  do  not  put  a  comma  where  no  pause 
is  made  in  reading. 

Do  not  put  a  comma  or  other  mark  of  punctuation  before 
the  first  member  of  a  series  of  sentence  elements  unless  it 
would  be  required  there,  were  there  one  element  instead  of  a 
series. 


36  THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

Put  no  comma  before  a  substantive  clause  introduced 
by  that  or  how  when  the  governing  verb  (such  as  said,  thought, 
supposed)  immediately  or  very  closely  precedes  the  clause. 

Clauses  of  a  compound  sentence  that  are  not  joined  by 
conjunctions  may  be  separated  by  commas  when  the  clauses 
are  short,  have  no  commas  within  themselves,  and  are  closely 
parallel  in  substance  and  form. 

THE   SEMICOLON    (;) 

The  semicolon  is  used: 

1.  Between  clauses  of  a  compound  sentence  that  are  not 
joined  by  a  conjunction,  as:    He  did  not  go  to  Canada;  he 
went  to  Mexico. 

2.  Between    clauses    of   a   compound    sentence    that    are 
joined  by  one  of  the  conjunctive  adverbs  so,  therefore,  hence, 
however,    nevertheless,    moreover,    accordingly,    besides,    also, 
thus,  then,  still,  and  otherwise. 

3.  Between    clauses    of    a    compound   sentence    that   are 
joined  by  a  simple  conjunction,  when  these  clauses  are  some- 
what long  or  when  a  more  decided  pause  than  a  comma 
would  furnish  is  desirable. 

4.  To  separate  two  or  more  coordinate   members  of  a 
simple  or  complex  sentence  when  those  members,  or  some 
of  them,  have  commas  within  themselves. 

5.  To  separate  any  two  members  of  a  simple  or  complex 
sentence  when  for  any  reason  a  comma  would  not  make  the 
relation  between  them  immediately  clear. 

Do  not  use  a  semicolon  between  two  members  of  a  simple 
or  complex  sentence;  use  a  comma  if  any  punctuation  is 
required  at  such  a  place. 

THE   COLON    (:) 

The  colon  is  used  after  a  word,  phrase,  or  sentence  con- 
stituting an  introduction  to  something  that  follows,  such 


PUNCTUATION  37 

as  a  list  or  an  extended  quotation,  as:  There  are  three  causes: 
poverty,  injustice,  and  indolence. 

THE    QUESTION   MARK    (?) 

The  question  mark  is  used  after  a  direct  question  but 
not  after  an  indirect  question. 

The  question  mark  within  parentheses  is  properly  used 
only  in  serious  compositions,  such  as  historical  works.  Its 
use  as  a  notice  of  humor  or  irony  is  puerility.  Example: 
This  event  occurred  in  411  B.  C.  (?). 

THE   DASH    (— ) 

The  dash  is  used: 

1.  When   a  sentence   is   abruptly   broken   off   before   its 
completion. 

2.  After  a  comma,  to  increase  the  separation  slightly. 

3.  As  a  substitute  for  parenthesis  marks. 

4.  Before  a  word  summarizing  the  preceding  part  of  a 
sentence. 

5.  Before  a  repetition  or  modification  having  the  effect 
of  an  afterthought. 

6.  After    the    word    immediately    preceding    a    sentence 
element  that  is  set  apart  on  the  page  from  the  first  part  of 
the  sentence. 

Do  not  use  dashes  indiscriminately,  where  commas, 
periods,  or  other  marks  of  punctuation  belong. 

PARENTHESIS    MARKS    () 

When  parenthesis  marks  are  used  to  set  off  matter  in  a 
sentence,  a  comma,  a  period,  or  other  mark  of  punctuation 
belonging  to  the  part  before  such  matter  should  be  placed 
after  the  second  parenthesis  mark,  not  elsewhere. 

A  comma  should  not  be  used  with  parenthesis  marks 
unless  it  would  be  required  were  there  no  parenthetic  matter. 


38  THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

Do  not  use  parenthesis  marks  to  enclose  matter  that  is 
not  parenthetical.  Do  not  use  them: 

1.  To  emphasize  a  word;  italicize. 

2.  To  enclose  a  word  about  which  something  is  said  as  a 
word.    Such  words  should  be  italicized. 

3.  To  indicate  the  title  of  a  book;  italicize. 

4.  To  enclose  a  letter,  number,  or  symbol,  unless  it  is 
used  parenthetically. 

5.  To  cancel  a  word  or  passage. 

BRACKETS    ([  ]) 

Square  brackets,  [  ],  are  used  to  enclose  a  word  or  words 
interpolated  in  a  quotation  by  the  person  quoting.  Words 
enclosed  in  parenthesis  marks,  (  ),  occurring  in  a  quotation, 
are  understood  to  belong  to  the  quotation;  words  enclosed 
in  brackets,  [  ],  are  understood  to  be  interpolated  by  the 
writer  quoting. 

QUOTATION    MARKS    ("  ") 

Quotation  marks  are  used  to  enclose  a  direct  quotation, 
but  not  to  enclose  an  indirect  quotation. 

Do  not  fail  to  put  quotation  marks  at  the  beginning  and 
the  end  of  every  quotation. 

Do  not  punctuate  sentences  of  a  single  speech  as  if  they 
were  separate  speeches. 

When  a  quotation  mark  and  a  question  or  exclamation 
mark  both  follow  the  same  word: 

1.  The  question  or  exclamation  mark  should  stand  first 
if  it  applies  to  the  quotation  and  not  to  the  sentence  con- 
taining the  quotation. 

2.  The  quotation  mark  should  stand  first  if  the  other 
mark  applies,  not  to  the  quotation,  but  to  the  sentence  con- 
taining the  quotation. 

3.  In  either  case  no  comma  or  period  should  be  used  in 
addition  to  the  quotation  mark  and  the  question  or  exclama- 
tion mark. 


PUNCTUATION  39 

A  quotation  within  a  quotation  is  marked  by  single  quota- 
tion marks;  one  within  that  by  double  marks. 

When  a  quotation  consists  of  several  paragraphs,  quota- 
tion marks  should  be  placed  at  the  beginning  of  each  para- 
graph and  at  the  end  of  the  quotation. 

Quotation  marks  may  sometimes  be  used  to  mark  a  tech- 
nical term  presumably  unfamiliar  to  the  reader. 

Quotation  marks  may  sometimes  be  used  to  indicate 
apology  for  slang  or  nicknames. 

Do  not  use  quotation  marks: 

1.  To  enclose  the  title  at  the  head   of  a  composition, 
unless  the  title  is  a  quotation. 

2.  To  enclose  proper  names,  including  names  of  animals. 

3.  To  enclose  proverbial  expressions  that  do  not  constitute 
grammatically  and  logically  complete  statements. 

4.  To  enclose  words  coined  ex'empore. 

5.  To   serve   the    undignified    and    inartistic    purpose   of 
labeling  your  own  humor  or  irony. 

6.  For  no  reason  at  all. 

THE   APOSTROPHE    (') 

In  the  possessive  singular  of  regularly  inflected  nouns  an 
apostrophe  should  ordinarily  precede  the  s;  in  the  possessive 
plural  of  such  nouns  an  apostrophe  should  follow"  the  s. 

Do  not  form  the  possessive  singular  of  a  noun  ending  in 
s  by  putting  an  apostrophe  before  the  s;  put  an  apostrophe 
after  the  5  or  add  's. 

Never  use  an  apostrophe  with  the  possessive  adjectives 
hers,  its,  ours,  yours,  and  theirs. 

In  a  contracted  word  an  apostrophe  should  stand  in  the 
place  of  the  omitted  letter  or  letters,  not  elsewhere. 

The  plural  of  letters  of  the  alphabet  and  of  numerical 
symbols  is  formed  by  adding  's  to  the  letter  or  symbol. 
The  plural  of  a  word  considered  as  a  word  may  also  be  formed 
in  the  same  way.  But  the  regular  plural  of  a  noun  should 
never  be  formed  by  adding  's. 


40  THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

THE   HYPHEN    (-) 

No  simple  rule  can  be  given  for  determining  whether  a 
compound  word  should  be  hyphened  or  written  solid.  One 
must  simply  learn,  from  observation  and  from  dictionaries, 
what  is  the  correct  practice  in  individual  cases. 

Always  hyphen  to-day,  to-night,  to-morrow,  and  good-bye. 

In  dividing  a  word  at  the  end  of  a  line,  place  a  hyphen 
after  the  first  element  of  the  word  and  there  only;  never 
put  a  hyphen  at  the  beginning  of  a  line.17 

THE   EXCLAMATION   POINT    (!) 

Use  the  exclamation  point  after  a  word 
or  group  of  words  to  express  command,  sur- 
prise, or  emotion.  Do  not  use  two  or  three 
exclamation  points  together. 

MISCELLANEOUS   RULES 

If  such  as  is  used  to  introduce  an  example, 
or  examples,  it  is  preceded  by  a  comma,  a 
comma  and  dash,  or  a  semicolon,  and  should 
not  be  followed  by  a  punctuation  mark  unless 
a  parenthetical  expression  is  inserted  between 
the  such  as  and  the  words  it  introduces. 

In  an  example  or  explanation  introduced 
by  one  of  the  expressions,  viz.  (namely),  e.  g. 
(for  example),  and  i.  e.  (that  is),  the  expres- 
sion should  always  be  followed  by  a  comma. 

0  is  always  written  with  a  capital,  but  oh  takes  a  capital 
only  when  beginning  a  sentence.  Some  writers  prefer  always 
to  write  oh  with  a  capital. 


PUNCTUATION  41 

A  period,  or  any  other  mark  except  an  interrogation 
point,  is  not  often  used  after  a  display  line  in  the  title-page 
of  a  book.  This  practice  is  well-nigh  universal  in  hook  work 
and  almost  equally  so  in  magazines. 

A  period  and  a  dash  are  generally  used  after  a  side  head. 
The  dash  sets  the  group  of  words  off  from  what  follows  and 
thus  shows  at  a  glance  that  the  words  are  a  heading  and  not 
a  part  of  the  sentence  following. 

A  period  is  generally  placed  after  the  letter  or  the  number 
indicating  a  division  in  enumerations. 

If  the  divisions  have  subdivisions  and  the  subdivisions 

are  further  subdivided,  it  is  helpful  to  the  reader  if  a  good 

conventional  style  is  followed.     In  the  case  of  four  divisions 

and  subdivisions,  a  good  conventional  style  is  as  follows: 

A.  The  capital  letters  (A,  B,  C,  and  so  forth)  will  mark 

the  main  divisions  of  the  subject. 

I.  The  Roman  numerals  (I,  II,  III,  and  so  forth)  will 

mark  the  subdivisions  of  A,  B,  C,  and  so  forth. 

i.  The  Arabic  figures  (i,  2,  3,  and  so  forth)  will  mark 

the  subdivisions  of  I,  II,  III,  and  so  forth, 
a.  The  italic  lower-case  letters  (a,  b,  c,  and  so 
forth)  will  mark  the  subdivisions  of  i,  2,  3, 
and  so  forth. 

The  word  cent  in  per  cent  is  now  generally  written  without 
a  period. 

The  terms  4  to,  8  vo,  12  mo,  and  so  forth,  used  to  denote 
the  size  of  books,  are  not  abbreviations  and  so  do  not  take 
periods  after  them.  Each  number  stands  for  a  suppressed 
part  of  the  word  in  which  it  appears. 

When  one,  for  the  sake  of  brevity  or  otherwise,  omits  a 
word,  a  group  of  words,  or  one  or  more  sentences  from  a 
quotation,  such  omission  or  ellipsis  is  indicated  by  either 
periods  or  stars.  Periods  are  generally  preferred  on  the 
ground  that  they  look  better  on  the  printed  page  than  stars. 
Unfortunately  the  number  of  periods  used  for  an  ellipsis 
is  not  definitely  fixed  by  convention. 


42  THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

If  words  are  omitted  from  the  end  of  a  sentence  the  end- 
mark  of  the  sentence,  if  an  exclamation  point  or  an  interro- 
gation point,  is  retained  and  follows  the  three  periods.  If 
the  end-mark  of  the  sentence  is  a  period  and  one  or  more 
sentences  following  are  omitted  there  will  be  four  periods 
at  this  point.  There  will  be  the  same  number  if  words  are 
omitted  from  the  beginning  of  a  sentence  following  a  sentence 
ending  with  a  period. 
'  If  stars  are  used  the  closing  period  is  retained. 

If  one  or  more  paragraphs,  or  if,  in  poetry,  one  or  more 
lines  are  omitted  a  full  line  of  periods  or  stars  is  used. 

A  dash  or  stars  are  used  in  the  place  of  letters  omitted 
from  a  word,  and  the  dash  in  place  of  figures  omitted  from 
a  number  of  figures.12 


Study  punctuation  thoroughly;  the  art  can- 
not be  learned  from  a  few  rules. 

Use  marks  of  punctuation  to  show  the  rela- 
tion between  groups  of  words. 

When  in  doubt  place  marks  guardedly,  using 
only  such  as  are  clearly  indicated. 


CHAPTER  VI 
MISCELLANEOUS   GRAMMATICAL    NOTES 

Grammar  is  not  pedantry"  mathematics  is  not  pedantry;  military 
maneuvers  are  not  pedantry;  but  pedantry  it  is  to  take  grammar  for 
literature,  mathematics  for  physics,  or  maneuvers  for  war. — Allbutt. 

Errors  of  grammar  in  writing  as  in  speaking 
are  quite  as  often  the  result  of  careless  habits 
of  thinking  and  of  expression  as  of  unfamiliarity 
with  the  common  rules  of  grammar.  If  the 
writer  will  cultivate  a  fixed  habit  of  searching 
for  exactly  the  right  words  to  form  a  sentence, 
he  will  be  saved  from  committing  gross  errors 
in  speaking  as  well  as  in  writing.  He  will, 
moreover,  be  repaid  for  the  time  and  care 
thus  expended  when  he  contrasts  the  results 
with  those  of  others  less  painstaking. 

Scientific  writers  are  too  apt  to  suppose  that  restatement 
in  bigger  words  is  explanation. 

Role  is  inferior  to  part,  for  role  takes  us  back  to  a  dried 
sheepskin,  whereas  to  play  a  part  is  to  be  engaged  in  the 
drama  itself.  Summary  is  at  least  as  good  as  resume;  and 
dernier  ressort  has  no  advantage  over  last  resort.  Raison 
d'etre,  tout  ensemble,  cortege,  par  excellence,  and  so  forth,  give 
us  nothing  that  we  have  not  of  our  own.  Taboo  is  generally- 
used  incorrectly,  and  in  this  common  use  is  no  better  than 

43 


44  THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

ban.  There  is  no  virtue  in  the  barbarous  cavitation  which 
is  not  in  the  civiller  word  excavation.  To  exteriorise  is  no 
better  than  to  utter,  nor  centrijugalisation  than  spinning. 
Standardisation  is  a  grievous  infliction;  let  it  serve  as  a 
warning. 

To  the  journalist,  opinion  is  almost  obsolete;  he  abases 
theory  to  take  its  place.  An  antiquary,  as  he  tells  us,  has  a 
theory  that  a  certain  coin  is  of  Constantine;  in  the  next 
paragraph  he  himself  has  a  theory  that  a  burglar  climbed 
over  the  garden  wall  and  let  himself  in  by  the  cellar  window; 
in  the  next  a  theory  that  the  leader  of  the  opposite  political 
party  talks  nonsense;  and  so  on.  We,  who  shrink  from 
pedantry,  scarcely  venture  nowadays  to  speak  of  opinions 
or  notions,  or  to  keep  theory  for  higher  uses. 

The  neutral  or  indefinite  pronoun  one  should  be  used 
sparingly  in  English;  one  says,  one  does,  are  good  French 
or  good  German,  but,  if  used  indifferently,  are  not  good 
English. 

The  use  of  you  and  yours  as  indefinite  pronouns  is  generally 
vulgar,  and  not  rarely  unpleasant;  e.  g.,  when  a  student  reads 
to  me,  You  may  then  get  secondary  deposits  of  cancer  in 
your  liver,  I  resent  the  suggestion. 

The  following  sentence,  culled  two  or  three  years  ago 
from  one  of  our  theses,  is,  I  admit,  a  record  example: 

Then  I  should  advise  putting  your  feet  into  hot  water, 
when  he  will  feel  a  gentle  perspiration  breaking  out,  and  the 
next  morning  one  will  feel  the  cold  passing  off. 

Even  in  more  careful  writings  the  pronoun- one  is  some- 
times followed  later  in  the  sentence  or  paragraph  by  we, 
your,  and  so  forth. 

I  note  that  an  indirect  construction  is  often  used  to  avoid 
the  little  word  7.  It  would  seem  that  an  impression  is  abroad 
among  the  writers  of  academic  essays  that  the  first  person 
is  indecent.  No  doubt,  as  in  our  manners  generally,  self 
must  be  intruded  with  tact;  we  must  intrude,  that  is,  just 


MISCELLANEOUS  GRAMMATICAL  NOTES        45 

so  much  of  one's  self  as  the  reader  is  attuned  to,  and  no 
more.  Of  the  reader  of  a  thesis,  or  other  such  paper,  it  is 
expected  that  he  speak  in  due  measure  of  himself — of  his 
own  work  and  his  own  opinions;  and  persistently  to  evade 
the  first  person  singular  is  in  him  affectation.  Egoism  may 
lurk  even  in  impersonality. 

The  hanging  participle. — It  is  a  very  common  fault  to 
leave  a  participle  hanging,  that  is,  without  a  subject;  for 
example,  "My  thesis  was  half  written,  having  consulted 
Professor  Wilkinson  as  to  the  subject."  Did  the  thesis  con- 
sult the  Professor?  "Complaining  of  shortness  of  breath, 
the  nurse  lifted  her  into  bed."  Was  it  the  nurse  who  com- 
plained? 

The  following  expressions  are  inadmissible:  "I  discussed 
a  series  of  cases  occurring  (which  occurred)  in  this  hospital"; 
"the  building  stood  for  many  years,  being  pulled  down, 
however,  fifty  years  ago";  "I  intend  doing"  (to  do);  "to 
which  I  propose  alluding"  (to  allude);  "we  are  contemplating 
walking  back";  and  so  forth. 

The  double  passive  is  a  clumsy  mode  of  speech  and  in 
many  cases  hazy  in  meaning.  Why  do  we  say  "were  con- 
sidered to  be  produced  by"  (were  attributed  to);  "his  voice 
was  unable  to  be  heard";  "the  meaning  may  not  be  able  to 
be  made  out";  or  "a  frothy  fluid  would  be  able  to  be  squeezed 
out"? 

Transitive  and  intransitive  verbs:  e.  g.,  "The  patient  quiets 
down."  There  is  no  authority  worth  mentioning  for  this 
use  of  the  verb,  nor  is  the  use  needed.  Even  in  the  active, 
some  verbs,  as  to  give,  become  transitive  only  by  means  of 
the  preposition  to:  for  example,  "I  will  give  to  him";  but  to 
write,  "The  patient  was  given  a  rhubarb  pill"  is  bad,  and 
gratuitously  bad,  for  we  can  say  as  readily  that  "a  rhubarb 
pill  was  given  to  him."  For  "the  remedy  should  be  given 
a  thorough  trial,"  read  "should  be  well  tried."1 


46  THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

Adverbs. — Place  the  adverbs  only,  merely, 
just,  almost,  ever,  hardly,  scarcely,  quite,  and 
nearly  next  to  the  words  they  modify  and  not 
elsewhere.  Example:  ambiguous:  Present  ab- 
stracts of  long  papers  to  an  audience  only; 
correct:  Present  to  an  audience  only  abstracts 
of  long  papers. 

Past  tenses  and  perfect  participles. — Of  some  verbs  the 
past  tenses  and  perfect  participles  are  often  confused:  for 
example,  "I  had  scarcely  began  when  he  begun"  (a  double 
error);  "he  drunk  (drank)  the  mixture";  "the  rags  must  be 
burnt"  (burned). 

The  subjunctive  mood  is  falling  into  disuse  but  is  still 
effective  for  grave  or  emphatic  doubt.  //,  however,  often 
means  seeing  that,  when  no  doubt  is  assumed,  and  the  sub- 
junctive would  be  incorrect. 

False  concords. — These  are  relatively  few,  but  they  happen 
occasionally:  for  example,  "The  ideas  he  had  gained  was 
his  chief  concern."  "This  tablet,  with  the  window  above, 
are  a  tribute,"  and  so  forth,  was  written  on  brass  in  Exeter 
Cathedral.  "The  professor,  with  his  friend  and  his  pupil, 
were"  (was),  and  so  forth.  "The  severity  of  the  symptoms 
were  such,"  and  so  forth.  "Policy  as  well  as  fashion  dictate" 
(dictates).  "Gout  as  well  as  glycosuria  were  (was)  present." 
"Neither  the  one  nor  the  other  were  (was)  there."  "The 
outline  of  the  breastbone  is  altered,  as  are  also  some  of  the 
ribs"  (as  is  also  that  of  some  of  the  ribs).  Even  in  careful 
writing  a  false  concord  will  creep  in  furtively  sometimes,  as; 
"My  intentions  were  good,  but  my  perseverance  faulty" 
(my  perseverance  were).  "His  gait  is  reeling  and  his  steps 
(are)  irregular."  "The  outline  was  blurred  and  the  details 
(were)  indistinct."  Or  again,  "The  complexion  is  pallid, 


MISCELLANEOUS  GRAMMATICAL  NOTES         47 

the  forehead  wrinkled,  the  nose  depressed,  and  the  lips 
thick  and  everted";  here  and  should  be  transferred  to  the 
previous  clause,  a  semicolon  put  after  depressed,  and  are 
inserted  between  lips  and  thick. 

I  will  accumulate  some  examples  here  of  other  false  con- 
cords, as  these  minor  errors  are  frequent:  "Neither  of  these 
boys  were  (was)  remarkable,"  and  so  forth.  "Nobody  ever 
put  so  much  of  themselves  into  their  work."  "Of  these  per- 
sons none  (no  one)  were  (was)  robust."  "Now  none  of 
these  things  were  (was)  there."  How  far  more  effective  is 
the  singular  verb  after  none! 

A  relative  pronoun  may  determine  the  number  of  the 
verb:  for  example,  "One  of  the  most  valuable  books  that  have 
appeared"  is  correct,  for  that  relates  to  books,  not  to  one. 
"This  was  one  of  the  first  objects  that  were  found"  is  correct 
likewise.  "I  am  one  of  those  who  are  unable  to  refuse  my 
assent"  is  correct  as  to  are,  but  consequently  my  should 
have  been  omitted. 

Tenses  are  not  to  be  changed  when  the  sense  is  unchanged : 
as  in,  "The  leaves  were  dry  and  brown,  and  under  the  micro- 
scope there  is  seen,"  and  so  forth. 

It  is  not  well,  unless  deliberately  for  emphasis,  to  change 
construction  in  the  course  of  a  sentence:  for  example,  "The 
reaction  first  described  by  Jones  and  to  which  he  gave  the 
name  of,"  and  so  forth;  it  should  run,  "described  by  Jones 
and  named  by  him,"  and  so  forth.1 

Too,  very. — Neither  of  these  words  should  immediately 
precede  a  past  participle;  say  too  much,  very  much.  Wrong: 
"He  is  too  exhausted  to  speak."  Right:  "He  is  too  much 
exhausted  to  speak."  Wrong:  "He  felt  very  insulted." 
Right:  "He  felt  very  much  insulted." 

It  is  often  advantageous  to  place  however,  therefore,  never- 
theless, moreover,  and  the  like,  within  the  sentences  they 
introduce  rather  than  at  the  beginning.17 


48  THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

Whose  is  conveniently  and  quite  correctly  applied  to 
things  as  well  as  to  persons. 

Cases. — Errors  in  cases  are  few  and  venial,  but  I  find  in 
a, thesis  before  me,  "The  patient  did  not  know  who  to  speak 
to."  Such  phrases  as  "Between  you  and  I,"  "Do  you  mind 
me  seeing  them?"  and  "I  heard  of  him  (his)  running  away" 
are  not  to  be  excused  even  in  speech. 

Than  as  a  conjunction  does  not  govern  a  case.  "I  know 
you  are  wiser  than  me"  should  be  "than  I"  (am).  Avoid 
such  an  uncomfortable  ambiguity  as  this:  "Anthony  was 
not  less  desirous  of  destroying  the  conspirators  than  his 
officers." 

The  and  which  and  and  who  blunders  are  by  no  means  yet 
extinct:  for  example,  "These  scenes,  painful  to  witness 
and  which  did  no  good";  where  and,  of  course,  is  intrusive; 
omit  it  or  write,  "Scenes  which  were  painful  to  witness  and 
were,"  and  so  forth.  The  whom  blunder  may  also  be  men- 
tioned here:  "To  persons  whom  he  thought  were  far  away." 
"Mr.  Jones,  whom  I  trusted  would  have  helped  me."  In 
both  instances,  read  who. 

That. — Keep  down  your  that's,  for  they  multiply  like 
lower  organisms. 

This  and  that. — When  two  subjects  are  mentioned,  this 
refers  to  the  latter  and  that  to  the  former,  a  good  and  efficient 
rule  often  transgressed:  for  example,  we  write  correctly 
"The  patient  suffered  from  nephritis  and  pleurisy;  that  the 
physician  observed,  this  he  overlooked."  Not  uncommonly 
a  paragraph  begins  with  a  vague  this:  for  example,  "This 
being  so,"  and  so  forth,  where  this  may  indicate  any  one  of 
several  antecedents  or  the  sum  of  them,  without  definite 
distinction.1 

Shall  and  will. — In  affirmative  sentences,  shall  in  the 
first  person  signifies  expectancy,  future  action;  its  meaning 
is  reversed  in  the  second  and  third  persons  and  signifies 
determination  on  the  part  of  the  speaker;  will,  in  the  first 


MISCELLANEOUS  GRAMMATICAL  NOTES        49 

person,  signifies  willingness  or  determination  or  promise; 
in  the  second  and  third  persons  it  signifies  merely  future 
action:  "I  [or  we]  shall  go  to  town  with  him";  "He  [or  you, 
they]  will  go  to  town  with  him."  (Both  of  these  sentences 
express  future  action.)  "I  [or  we]  will  go  to  town  with  him," 
"He  [or  you,  they]  shall  go  to  town  with  him,"  express  deter- 
mination or  a  promise  on  the  part  of  the  speaker. 

Should  and  would  follow  the  rules  for  shall  and  will. 

The  use  of  should  and  would  in  indirect  discourse  is  in 
general  determined  by  the  form  used  in  the  speech  reported; 
but  there  are  many  subtleties  which  can  be  learned  only  by 
careful  and  minute  observation.14 

Would  rather  and  had  rather  are  with  us  interchangeable. 
But  this  is  not  true  of  would  better  and  had  better.  The  two 
idioms  under  consideration  stand  on  an  entirely  different 
footing.  In  the  one,  volition  is  the  underlying  idea.  "He 
had  rather  do  it,"  means  that  he  would  prefer  to  do  it.  Hence 
there  is  no  difficulty  in  substituting  would  for  had,  for  in 
both  cases  the  meaning  would  be  essentially  the  same.  But 
no  such  easy  interchange  can  take  place  in  the  case  of  the 
other  idiom.  In  had  better  there  is  implied  not  a  sense  of 
mere  choice  or  volition,  but  one  of  obligation  or  of  the  com- 
pulsion of  circumstances.  Hence  the  absolute  insufficiency 
of  would  in  place  of  had,  were  there  no  other  objections  to 
its  employment.  There  are  instances  in  which  might  better 
could  be  properly  substituted  for  had  better,  but  in  most 
cases  the  change  would  be  unsatisfactory.  It  was  probably 
the  desire  for  directness  and  conciseness,  and  perhaps  for 
additional  energy,  which  led  to  the  introduction  of  the  estab- 
lished locution  into  the  speech.  "He  had  better  do  it" 
once  was  and  still  can  be  represented  by  the  phrase,  "It 
were  (or  would  be)  better  that  he  should  do  it."  It  was 
hardly  to  be  expected  that  the  latter  diffuse  locution  could 
hold  its  ground  permanently  against  the  brevity  and  con- 
densed energy  of  the  former.  Still  the  history  of  this  con- 
4 


50  THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

tracted  method  of  expression  shows  that  while  now  accepted 
everywhere  by  cultivated  men,  it  made  its  way  but  slowly 
into  its  present  wide  employment.13 

Prepositions. — The  prepositions  most  often  confused  in 
use  are  at  and  to,  by  and  which,  and  in  and  into.  Careful 
study  should  be  given  to  these  and  to  the  standard  forms  of 
such  phrases  as:  with  regard  to,  with  a  view  to,  compare 
to,  compare  with,  agree  to,  agree  with,  differ  from,  differ  with, 
different  from  (not  to  or  than),  disappointed  by,  and  dis- 
appointed in.  The  correct  and  idiomatic  use  of  prepositions 
is  very  hard  to  learn,  but  there  are  few  subjects  which  will 
better  repay  the  careful  student  of  language. 

Conjunctions. — Attention  should  be  given  to  the  distinc- 
tion between  and  and  but,  and  to  that  between  and  and  or. 

Either  .  .  .  or,  and  neither  .  .  .  nor  are  correlative  con- 
junctions. Care  should  be  taken  that  each  member  of  the 
pair  used  be  placed  in  the  same  relative  position,  that  is, 
before  the  same  part  of  speech.  The  following  is  wrong: 
"I  could  neither  see  him  or  his  father."  Never  use  either 
.  .  .  nor  or  neither  ...  or  as  correlatives.14 

Beware  of  the  intrusive  not:  for  example,  "I  ran  to  see  if 
I  could  (not)  get  a  seat."  "Let  us  see  if  we  can  (not)  help 
him."  "I  cannot  say  what  disease  she  may  (not)  have." 
"Mr.  Jones  asked  if  both  lungs  might  (not)  be  diseased." 
"We  should  consider  whether  this  may  (not)  be  a  case  of 
infection."  A  recent  gazette  contained  an  inquiry  whether 
a  certain  title  might  (not)  be  conferred.  On  the  other  hand, 
not  is  often  in  error  omitted:  for  example,  "He  depended 
on  me  no  more  than  he  could  help"  is,  strictly  speaking, 
nonsense;  if  this  form  is  to  be  used,  not  is  required  before 
help.  "I  doubt  whether  the  reverse  be  not  the  case"  is  a 
common  and  bad  form  for,  "I  suspect  the  contrary  to  be 
true." 

Genitive. — Ought  we  to  write,  "I  heard  it  in  a  speech  of 
Mr.  Gladstone's  (or  of  Mr.  Gladstone)"?  is  a  question  often 


MISCELLANEOUS  GRAMMATICAL  NOTES         51 

asked  of  me.  Gladstone's  may  be  regarded  as  an  inflexional 
genitive,  as  we  say  "in  an  undertaking  of  his"  (not  of  him); 
if  this  be  the  notion  I  should  discard  the  's  after  of  as  obsoles- 
cent. 

Whether  in  the  genitive  of  a  noun  ending  in  5,  for  example, 
Socrates,  we  should  write  Socrateses,  Socrates's,  or  Socrates,' 
is  not  a  matter  of  grammar  but  of  custom,  and  the  last  is 
the  most  convenient.  Usually,  however,  as  also  in  the  plural 
of  such  nouns,  we  avoid  these  hisses  by  a  periphrasis:  for 
example,  "in  the  opinion  of  Socrates."  "Would  there  were 
more  Socrateses  in  the  world"  is  very  harsh. 

A  common  grammatical  error  is  the  forcing  of  an  alien 
preposition  upon  a  verb:  for  example,  "of  which  he  had 
heard  but  never  seen"  (seen  of!);  "This  addition  can  be 
applied  and  connected  with  the  instrument"  (applied  with!). 
Or  by  the  omission  of  a  necessary  preposition  the  meaning 
may  be  vitiated:  for  example,  "Much  depends  on  the  home 
and  the  care  bestowed  upon  them."  Here  on  must  be  re- 
peated before  the  care,  as  the  home  is  not  bestowed  upon  them. 

Singular  and  plural  nouns. — Whether  Greek  be  compulsory 
or  not,  Latin  cannot  well  be  omitted  from  a  good  education; 
yet  when  in  theses  before  me  I  read  not  only  prodromata 
(sing.,  prodromon;  pi.,  prodroma)  passim,  and  not  rarely  a 
phenomena,  and  so  forth,  ignorance  of  Greek  is  scarcely  an 
excuse.  But  what  are  we  to  say  when  not  long  ago  a  well 
known  physician  wrote  of  vocal  fremitil  In  editorial  para- 
graphs of  smart  newspapers  I  have  lately  read  of  omnibi, 
excursi,  comities,  and  even  of  non  possumi;  apparali  is  pretty 
common;  carnivores  appeared  lately  in  a  leading  scientific 
magazine;  in  a  well  known  book  by  a  celebrated  author  we  are 
told  that  "the  hands  of  the  Scipit  were  nailed  to  the  rostra" 
— blunders  which  remind  us  of  Frank  Lock  wood's  jest :  "They 
will  apply  for  a  mandamus!  Then  we  will  apply  for  a  brace  of 
mandami."1 

If  the  writer  is  furnished  with  but  a  lean  stock  of  words. 


52  THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

those  that  he  has  must  be  degraded  to  rude  and  indiscriminate 
uses.  In  such  a  sentence  as  this :  "From  this  center  the  germ 
were  extended  to  other  parts"  (for  were  disseminated  or 
scattered),  the  writer  does  not  search  for  the  aptest  word  for 
his  meaning,  nor  does  he  care  to  do  so;  he  fills  the  gap  with  the 
handiest  of  the  few  in  his  scrip.  A  problem,  a  dilemma,  a 
proposition,  a  subject,  a  case,  or  nothing  whatever,  are  all 
questions:  for  example,  "He  gave  credence  to  a  doubtful 
question";  "The  question  is  one  of  decreased  resistance"  (for 
the  condition  or  problem);  "The  question  is  one  of  decreased 
tissue  change,"  where  answer  would  have  been  nearer  the 
meaning;  "The  question  of  the  shoulder  and  elbow  will  be 
referred  to  later"  (for  question  read  affection  or  injury).  To 
involve,  with  its  ugly  noun,  involvement,  has  to  do  duty  for 
to  attack,  to  invade,  to  injure,  to  affect,  to  pervert,  to  encroach 
upon,  to  influence,  to  enclose,  to  implicate,  to  permeate,  to  pervade, 
to  penetrate,  to  dislocate,  to  contaminate,  to  complicate,  and  so 
forth.  I  see  in  a  thesis  before  me,  "the  liver  also  was  involved, 
there  being  a  few  secondary  growths  in  it";  the  author  might 
as  well  have  said  that  his  lawn  was  involved  in  a  few  dan- 
delions. Again,  "the  anemia  involves  the  hemoglobin,"  for 
example,  a  certain  chemical  compound  is  enclosed  in  an 
abstraction!  "The  mesenteric  artery  was  involved"  (in  an 
embolism) ;  surely  the  converse  was  the  truth. 

Before  leaving  grammar  I  may  inquire  why  scientific 
essayists  generally  go  out  of  their  way  to  an  indirect  construc- 
tion which  does  but  take  the  life  out  of  their  sentences.  We 
read,  "there  is  found  a  blue  coloration,"  "there  exists  a  marked 
tendency  for  the  parts  to  unite,"  "only  rarely  does  one  find," 
and  "to  the  apathy  of  the  sufferer  was  added  an  appearance  of 
exhaustion," — all  vapid  substitutes  for  direct  assertion,  such 
as  "it  turns  blue,"  "the  parts  are  very  apt  to  unite,"  "one 
rarely  finds,"  and  so  forth. 

Statements  of  fact,  such  as  "the  speaker  said,"  are  properly 
of  the  past  tense,  but  general  propositions,  if  valid,  are  valid 


MISCELLANEOUS  GRAMMATICAL  NOTES        53 

in  the  present  and  future;  to  put  them  in  a  past  tense  is  to 
suggest  that  even  the  speaker  had  no  faith  in  their  constancy. 
A  little  while  ago  Ehrlich  was  thus  reported:  "Toxins  were 
unstable  substances"  (as  if  since  they  had  become  stable!); 
and,  more  absurdly,  "at  present  it  was  impossible  to  define  them 
chemically."  Again,  in  another  place,  "Real  education  was 
not  an  affair  of  the  memory  only;  the  mind  was  a  live  thing," 
and  so  forth.  "They  acted  at  that  epoch  just  as  people  did 
(do)  at  the  present  day."  But  the  blunder  is  rarely  so  untimely 
as  in  the  attribution  to  a  prelate,  at  a  recent  church  congress, 
of  the  words,  "that  there  was  a  God  above  us." 

The  same  false  sequence  in  concords  is  seen  in  such  phrases 
as,  "I  intended  to  have  written"  (for  "I  intended  to  write"); 
"I  should  like  to  have  seen  him"  (for  "I  should  have  liked  to 
see  him") ;  "It  would  have  been  wrong  to  have  refused"  (for  "to 
refuse");  "I  should  have  deserved  to  have  been  dismissed', 
(for  "to  be  dismissed").1 


EXAMPLES   OF   ACCEPTED    ENGLISH   PLURALS 

antrums  exanthems  myomas 

apexes  fetuses  myxomas 

appendixes  fibromas  perineums 

cannulas  fistulas  plasmas 

carcinomas  formulas  psammomas 

chondromas  ganglions  sanatoriums 

condylomas  glaucomas  sarcomas 

corneas  gummas  scotomas 

curriculums  hematomas  septums 

endotheliomas  indexes  sequestrums 

enemas  lipomas  serums 

epitheliomas  mediums  sputums 

erythemas  microns  traumas 


54  THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

FOREIGN   PLURALS   AS   YET   RETAINED 

apparatus  diverticula  phenomena 

areolae  emboli  pleurae 

axillae  foci  protozoa 

bacteria  foramina  radii 

bronchi  larvae  sequelae 

coniunctivae  lumina  spermatozoa 

cortices  maxillae  stigmata 

criteria  nevi  stomata 

data  nidi  uteri 

deliria  nuclei  vertebrae 

desiderata  papillae  viscera 

ADJECTIVES   WITH   VARIANT   ENDINGS 

alphabetic  empiric 
(pertaining  to  an  alphabet)  entomologic 

alphabetical  ethnographic 
(in  the  order  of  the  letters    etiologic 

of  the  alphabet)  etymological 

analytic  galenic 

anatomic  (galenical  is  the  noun) 

anthropologic  generic 

anthropometric  geographic 

astronomical  gonococcic 

bacteriologic  hemianopic 

biochemical  hemorrhoidal 

biologic  histologic 

botanic  historic 

chemical  (celebrated  in  history) 

chronological  historical 

classic  (relating  to  history) 

clinical  hypodermic 

cylindric  hypothetic 

dynamic  hysterical 


MISCELLANEOUS  GRAMMATICAL  NOTES        55 


immunologic 

intraspinal 

logical 

macroscopic 

microscopic 

morphologic 

mystic 

neurologic 

obstetric 

paradoxic 

parasitic 

parasitologic 

parenthetical 

pathogenic 

pathognomonic 

pathologic 

periodic 

pharmaceutic 

pharmacologic 

physiologic 


psychiatric 

psychologic 

roentg'enologic 

serologic 

spherical 

staphylococcic 

streptococcic 

symmetrical 

teleologic 

theoretical 

therapeutic 

tubercular 

(nodular) 
tuberculous 

(infected    with   tubercles 

caused    by    the   bacillus    of 

tuberculosis) 
typographic 
zoological3 


PITFALLS  IN   DICTION 

Abbreviate  is  sometimes  used  for  abridge.  A  book  or  a 
lecture  is  abridged  when  it  is  given  in  condensed  form;  it  is 
abbreviated  when  shortened  in  any  way. 

Above  should  not  be  used  as  an  adjective,  as:  "Rules  stated 
in  the  above  section."  Substitute  preceding,  foregoing,  or 
some  similar  adjective. 

Affect  is  to  be  distinguished  from  the  verb  effect.  To  affect 
is  to  influence;  to  effect  is  to  cause  or  bring  about. 

Alike  should  not  be  reinforced  by  both:  "They  are  both 
alike  in  this  respect."  The  absurdity  is  easily  seen  in  the  stock 
example:  "Sam  and  Jim  are  both  very  much  alike,  especially 
Sam." 


56  THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

All,  in  connection  with  right,  is  a  separate  word:  all  right, 
never  alright.  All  and  universally  should  never  be  used 
together. 

Allege  is  a  common  error  for  say. 

Alone  expresses  the  sense  of  unaccompanied,  and  should  be 
distinguished  from  only,  which  means  no  other. 

Alternative  indicates  a  possibility  of  two  courses.  "Several 
alternatives  are  open  to  me"  is  therefore  bad. 

Any  is  sometimes  ambiguous.  Any  of  them  may  be  either 
singular  or  plural.  f 

Appear  is  physical,  external,  in  its  meaning,  and  should  be 
distinguished  from  seem,  which  expresses  a  mental  experience. 

Apt  should  never  be  used  in  place  of  likely  or  liable.  It 
means  capable  or  skilled.  * 

Avocation  is  not  the  same  as  vocation.  A  man's  vocation  is 
his  calling,  his  principal  occupation ;  his  avocation  is  a  secondary 
occupation  which,  however,  may  interest  him  more  than  his 
vocation. 

Between  applies  only  to  two  persons  or  things:  "Between 
you  three"  is  ungrammatical. 

Brainy  is  a  colloquial  Americanism. 

But,  used  in  connection  with  that,  is  redundant,  unless 
intended  to  express  the  opposite  of  what  the  meaning  would 
be  without  it. 

Can  has  the  meaning  of  ability,  power,  and  should  not  be 
confused  with  may,  which  implies  permission. 

Cheaply,  for  cheap,  sounds  affected.  "He  sold  it  cheap"  is 
correct.  Cheap  is  an  adverb  as  well  as  an  adjective. 

Claim,  in  the  sense  of  assert,  maintain,  or  say,  is  not 
sanctioned  by  good  usage. 

Conscious  should  not  be  used  for  aware  or  sensible.  We  can 
be  conscious  only  of  the  facts  of  our  own  inner  life;  we  are 
sensible  of  external  facts  which  affect  our  feelings;  we  are 
aware  of  whatever  external  facts  or  general  truths  are  known 
to  us.  "I  was  conscious  of  his  treachery"  is  incorrect. 


MISCELLANEOUS  GRAMMATICAL  NOTES         57 

Continuous  must  be  distinguished  from  continual;  the  former 
implies  something  uninterrupted,  unceasing,  the  latter,  some- 
thing frequently  recurring  but  with  interruptions. 

Data  is  plural.    "This  data"  is  as  bad  as  "this  facts." 

Decided  must  not  be  confused  with  decisive. 

Different  should  be  followed  by  from,  never  by  than  or  to. 

Distinguish  must  not  be  confused  with  differentiate;  dis- 
tinguish means  to  perceive  differences  between  things  or 
persons;  differentiate  means  to  make  or  constitute  a  differ- 
ence. 

Due  should  not  be  used  for  owing  to  or  because  of. 

Each  is  distributive  and  therefore  is  singular,  not  plural. 

Either  is  distributive  and  therefore  is  singular  and  should 
<iever  be  used  of  more  than  two. 

Else  should  be  followed  by  than,  not  by  but. 

Enthuse  has  not  yet  obtained  the  sanction  of  good  usage. 

Evidence  is  sometimes  used  when  testimony  would  be  pref- 
erable. The  testimony  of  a  witness  may  contain  no  evidence. 

Factor  is  loosely  used  for  cause  by  careless  writers. 

Female  for  woman  is  a  vulgarism:  "Clothing  for  males  and 
females"  (men  and  women). 

Fewer  applies  to  number;  less,  to  quantity:  "I  have  fewer 
(not  less)  books  than  you." 

Firstly  should  not  be  employed  for  first,  even  though 
succeeded  in  an  enumeration  by  secondly,  thirdly,  and  so 
forth.  First  is  an  adverb  as  well  as  an  adjective. 

Former,  and  its  antithesis,  latter,  should  be  used  to  designate 
one  of  two  persons,  things,  ideas,  and  so  forth.  In  case  of 
more  than  two,  the  expressions  the  first,  the  second,  the  third, 
the  last,  should  be  employed. 

Frequently  should  be  distinguished  from  commonly,  gen- 
erally, perpetually,  usually;  each  has  its  own  refinement  of 
meaning.  Commonly  expresses  the  antithesis  of  rarely; 
frequently  and  generally,  the  antithesis  of  seldom  or  occasion- 
ally; usually  is  the  opposite  of  casually. 


58  THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

Got,  in  the  sense  of  possession,  is  superfluous  and  is  to  be 
avoided. 

Guess,  in  the  sense  of  imagine,  suppose,  think,  as:  "I  guess 
he  is  a  rich  man,"  is  a  provincialism  sanctioned  in  conversation 
but  condemned  in  writing. 

Healthy  should  be  distinguished  from  healthful  and  from 
wholesome. 

High  should  be  distinguished  from  tall. 

If  is  often  misused  for  whether. 

Individual  means  a  person  or  thing  regarded  as  a  unit.  It 
is  improperly  used  as  a  mere  synonym  of  person. 

Kind  is  not  plural. 

Last  is  often  misused  for  latest. 

Latter  applies  only  to  the  last  of  two. 

Like  must  never  be  used  in  the  sense  of  as. 

Locate,  in  the  sense  of  settle,  is  regarded  as  a  vulgarism. 

Lovely,  like  elegant,  is  a  greatly  overworked  word. 

Luxuriant,  as  distinguished  from  luxurious,  means  super- 
abundant in  growth  or  production. 

Minus,  in  the  sense  of  without,  or  lacking,  is  colloquial. 

Most  has  been  used  instead  of  almost  for  almost  a  thousand 
years,  but  this  use  is  not  permissible. 

Necessities  has  almost  entirely  usurped  the  place  of  neces- 
saries in  current  English.  "The  necessities  of  life  often  reduce 
one  to  the  bare  necessaries."  It  is  unfortunate  that  the  dis- 
tinction between  the  words  is  no  longer  observed. 

Neither  denotes  one  of  two  and  should  not  be  used  for  none 
or  no  one. 

Nice,  in  the  sense  of  pleasant,  agreeable,  has  established 
itself  in  colloquial,  but  not  in  good  literary,  usage. 

None  should  be  treated  as  a  singular:  "None  of  them  was 
present";  "There  is  none  of  them  that  doeth  good." 

Not  must  be  followed  by  the  correlative  nor  in  such  a 
sentence  as:  "Not  for  wealth  nor  for  fame  did  he  strive." 

Observation  should  not  be  used  for  observance. 


MISCELLANEOUS  GRAMMATICAL  NOTES         59 

Other.    After  no  other,  use  than,  not  but. 

Panacea  is  ludicrously  misused  to  mean  an  effective 
remedy  for  a  single  disease;  it  means  something  that  cures  all 
diseases. 

Paradox  means  what  seems  absurd  or  self-contradictory. 
Seeming  is  therefore  redundant  in  "a  seeming  paradox." 

Per  should  be  used  in  connection  with  other  words  of  Latin 
form:  Per  diem,  per  annum,  per  cent;  but,  "He  is  paid  $50 
per  week"  is  to  be  avoided.  Use  a  with  week,  day,  and  so  forth. 

Perpendicular  merely  means  at  right  angles  to  some- 
thing else  mentioned ;  it  should  not  be  used  for  vertical. 

Perpetually  means  "without  interruption  or  cessation." 

Place,  when  used  in  the  sense  of  where,  is  a  vulgarism. 

Popular  means  "pleasing  to  many  people." 

Post  and  posted,  for  inform  and  informed,  are  too  colloquial 
for  serious  writing. 

Practical  and  practicable  are  often  confused. 

Premature.  To  call  a  false  report  premature  is  ludicrous, 
unless  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  the  event  reported  will 
occur  later. 

Promise,  in  the  sense  of  assure,  is  slang. 

Propose  is  often  misused  for  purpose. 

Proposition  is  often  misused  for  proposal.  A  proposition  is 
a  statement  of  a  judgment  or  a  plan,  a  proposal  is  the  presenta- 
tion or  statement  of  an  offer. 

Providing  is  sometimes  misused  for  provided. 

Quite  means  entirely,  wholly.  Quite  a  few  is  nonsense  as 
well  as  bad  English. 

Reference  is  often  wrongly  used  with  the  preposition  in. 

Researcher  is  a  vulgarism  of  the  worst  sort. 

Reside  is  used  for  live  by  those  who  like  fine  words. 

Retire,  for  go  to  bed,  is  affected. 

Some,  for  somewhat,  is  a  vulgarism. 

Splendid  means  shining,  brilliant. 

State  is  now  used  vulgarly  for  say. 


60  THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

Through  should  not  be  used  in  the  sense  of  finished. 

Transpire  does  not  mean  happen. 

Ugly,  in  the  sense  of  bad  tempered,  vicious,  should  be 
avoided. 

Unique  does  not  mean  rare,  or  odd,  as  many  seem  to 
suppose;  it  means  "alone  of  its  kind." 

Verbal.  "A  verbal  message"  means  only  "a  message  in 
words";  a  message  by  word  of  mouth  is  "an  oral  message." 

Way  should  not  be  used  in  the  sense  of  away. 

Ways  is  often  misused  for  way. 

Witness  is  used  for  see  by  persons  who  like  large  words.14 


CHAPTER  VII 
DON'TS 

Even  the  calamities  of  ignorance  and  carelessness — deplorable  and 
blameworthy  though  they  may  be — serve  to  the  well-balanced  mind  as 
mighty  and  lasting  stimulants  toward  increased  knowledge  and  pains- 
taking care. — Richardson. 

Don't  always  go  back  to  the  Garden  of 
Eden  and  review  the  literature  to  date. 

Don't  say  frequently  when  you  mean  often. 

Don't  say  per  instead  of  each. 

Don't  say  up  until  when  you  mean  until. 

Don't  say  the  patient  was  operated. 

Don't  say  vast  majority. 

Don't  say  diseased  condition.  Correct:  Dis- 
ease condition,  or  condition  of  disease.  Incor- 
rect: diseased  condition. 

Don't  begin  papers  by  saying,  "This  is  a 
rare  disease,"  or,  "This  is  a  rare  case  and 
seems,  therefore,  to  warrant  being  reported." 

Don't  say  symptomatology  when  you  mean 
symptoms.  Symptomatology  treats  of  symp- 
toms. 

Don't  say  that  a  person  is  tubercular;  this 
implies  that  he  is  afflicted  with  nodules,  which 
may  or  may  not  be  tuberculous. 

Don't    confuse    beside    and    besides.      Beside 

61 


t 
62  THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

is  a  preposition  meaning  next  to;  besides  is  a 
preposition  meaning  in  addition  to. 

Don't  estimate  measurements  in  terms  of 
cocoanuts,  oranges,  fists,  eggs,  beans,  and  so 
forth;  use  the  metric  system. 

Don't  say,  "There  was  no  pathology  in  the 
appendix."  Pathology  is  that  branch  of  medi- 
cine which  treats  of  the  essential  nature  of 
disease. 

Don't  say  case  when  you  mean  patient. 
Case,  in  a  medical  sense,  signifies  disease  or 
injury.  There  is  no  excuse  for  the  expres- 
sions: "The  case  was  operated  and  recovered"; 
"The  cases  could  not  take  such  large  doses"; 
"Five  of  the  empyemas  died";  "Of  the  276 
deaths,  sixteen  had  gallstones." 

Don't  confuse  toxicity  with  toxemia  or  toxic 
effects.  Toxicity:  The  quality,  state,  or  degree 
of  being  poisonous;  the  degree  of  virulence 
of  a  toxic  microbe.  Toxemia:  Blood  poisoning; 
poisoning  by  toxins  produced  in  the  cells 
or  by  the  influence  of  microorganisms.  Toxic: 
Pertaining  to,  due  to,  caused  by,  or  of  the 
nature  of,  a  poison.  A  poison  cannot  produce 
toxicity,  for  toxicity  is  a  characteristic  of  the 
poison  itself.  The  poison  can  produce  toxemia 
or  toxic  effects. 


DOX'TS  63 

Don't  confuse  differentiate  with  distinguish, 
discriminate,  or  contrast.  Differentiate  may  be 
used  correctly  to  explain  a  biologic  process, 
for  example:  "Squamous  epithelium  does  not 
originate  from  columnar  epithelium,  since  the 
columnar  cell  is  differentiated  and  cannot 
regenerate."  Differentiate  may  also  be  used 
in  describing  differences,  point  by  point,  for 
example:  Simple  cardiac  hypertrophy  and 
pericarditis  may  be  differentiated  by  the  heart 
sounds.  Right  use:  Differentiate  cardiac  hyper- 
trophy and  pericarditis.  Wrong  use:  Differ- 
entiate between  cardiac  hypertrophy  and  peri- 
carditis. 

Don't  say  -between  when  you  mean  among.  Look  up  these 
words  in  the  dictionary. 

Don't  say  consider  when  you  mean  regard,  think,  or  view. 

Don't  say  coordinate  when  you  mean  correlate.  Look  up 
these  words  in  the  dictionary. 

Don't  say  due  to  when  you  mean  attributable  to  or  on  account 
of,  or  perhaps  something  else.  Due  to  is  inaccurate  and 
slovenly. 

Don't  say  during  when  you  mean  in. 

Don't  say  eventuate  when  you  mean  occur  or  happen. 

Don't  say  motivate  when  you  mean  rr.cie,  or  fcrce  cfmottia 
lion  when  you  mean  motive. 

Don't  say  phenomena  (plural)  when  you  mean  pehnomenon 
(singular). 

Don't  forget  that  none  is  a  contraction  of  no  one  and  takes 
the  verb  is,  not  are. 


64  THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

Don't  say  people  when  you  mean  individuals  or  persons. 
Neither  fifty  Kaisers  nor  fifty  wops  are  fifty  people. 

Don't  say  point  of  view  when  you  mean  view  or  opinion. 
The  phrase  point  of  view  is  now  and  then  both  accurate  and 
useful,  but  it  should  be  employed  sparingly. 

Don't  say  sociological  when  you  mean  social,  psychological 
when  you  mean  mental  or  psychical,  biological  when  you  mean 
organic  or  vital,  or  physiological  when  you  mean  physical. 

Don't  overwork  hence. 

Don't  begin  as  many  as  ninety-five  per  cent  of  your 
sentences  with  thus. 

Don't  say  startling  fact,  downward  path,  or  step  by  step. 
These  phrases  are  stigmata  of  the  exhorter. 

Don't  say  /  will  or  /  would  when  you  mean  /  shall  or  / 
should,  and  don't  say  you  shall,  you  should,  he  shall,  or  he 
should  when  you  mean  you  will,  you  would,  he  will,  or  he  would. 

Don't  split  infinitives. 

Don't  separate  an  auxiliary  verb  from  its  verb  or  participle 
unless  you  are  using  more  than  one  auxiliary  with  one  verb. 
Don't  say,  "This  should  never  happen,"  although  it  is  true. 
"This  never  should  happen"  is  equally  true  and  is  also  correct. 
But  you  may  say,  "This  should  never  have  happened,"  if 
you  like  it  better  than  "This  never  should  have  happened." 

Don't  forget  that  skipping  about  from  tense  to  tense — 
commingling  past,  present,  and  future — in  one  time  and 
paragraph,  has  not  even  a  Bergsonian  justification.  It  is 
blasphemous,  ungrammatical,  and  annoying. 

Don't  forget  that  a  sentence  into  which  you  have  put  more 
than  fifty  words  is  probably  awkward  and  unclear. 

Don't  fail,  after  you  have  written  a  sentence,  to  look  it 
over  and  translate  it  into  ideas  (if  you  can),  and  decide  whether 
or  not  it  tells  the  reader  anything. 

Don't  fail  to  go  over  your  pages  diligently;  relentlessly 
"thin  out"  words.  A  good  writer  takes  a  hint  from  a  good 
gardener. 


DON'TS  65 

Don't  think  that  atrocities  are  pardonable  and  may  be 
imitated  if  they  are  committed  in  books  written  by  Presidents 
of  the  United  States  who  are  known  as  "stylists"  or  "authors." 
Abraham  Lincoln  would  have  said  something  brief  and 
appropriate  about  "stylists"  if  he  had  been  called  one.  He 
wrote  well  because  he  had  something  to  say  and  wanted  to  be 
understood.  A  good  writer  addresses  persons  who  have  to 
comprehend,  to  decide,  and  to  act.  "Stylists"  write  for  pub- 
lishers, posterity,  and  chautauqua  circles.10 

Don't  use  exclamatory  and  interrogative  sentences  when  the 
declarative  sentence  can  be  made  to  serve.  It  is  only  in  the 
rarest  cases  that  these  variant  forms  are  really  effective. 

Don't  rise  to  poetic  heights  except  when  describing  gen- 
uinely poetic  subject  matter. 

Don't  pile  up  adjectives  and  adverbs.  There  is  no  more 
justification  for  being  a  spendthrift  with  these  descriptive 
coins  than  there  is  for  any  other  sort  of  extravagance. 

Don't  use,  or  at  any  rate  don't  abuse,  the  weak  intensives, 
such  as  certainly,  surely,  veritably,  and  so  on.7 


Form  the  habit  of  using  correct  words. 
The  reader  should  not  be  obliged  to  guess 
your  meaning. 

Study  the  style  of  your  paper  quite  as  care- 
fully as  the  subject  matter.  The  hackneyed 
excuse  for  bad  English,  "individual  style," 
will  not  be  accepted  by  conscientious  editors. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
SUBJECT  MATTER:   LENGTH  OF  PAPERS 

Few  men  are  experienced  and  wise  enough  to  form  large  generaliza- 
tions, and  few  large  generalizations  are  true  enough  or  definite  enough 
to  be  valuable. — Manly  and  Powell. 

While  the  chosen  audience  determines,  not 
only  the  subject,  but  the  phase,  and  the  method 
and  scope  of  its  development,  it  is  conversely 
true  that  the  chosen  subject  determines  the 
audience  and  the  journal  in  which  the  paper 
should  be  published.  This  is  especially  the 
case  when  it  is  desirable  to  announce  without 
delay  a  new  method  or  discovery.  The  custom 
of  publishing  miscellaneous  articles  in  journals 
purporting  to  cover  only  special  subjects,  and 
of  publishing  special  articles  in  journals  cover- 
ing a  miscellaneous  field,  is  not  only  wasteful 
of  the  reader's  time,  but  it  is  very  often  an 
annoyance  to  the  reviewer  compiling  data  on 
a  particular  topic. 

The  writer  should  choose  his  topic  from  the 
most  available  subjects  of  which  he  has  made 
some  original  study,  and,  what  is  of  greater 
importance,  he  should  choose  it  from  material 
of  which  he  may  have  an  opportunity  to  make 

66 


SUBJECT  MATTER:  LENGTH  OF  PAPERS         67 

further  studies  and  investigations.  Too  often 
the  young  physician  overlooks  this  point  or 
considers  it  impractical;  and  in  his  haste  to 
appear  in  print  he  prepares  the  first  of  a  series 
of  widely  disconnected  papers  which  result  in 
waste  and  misdirection  of  his  energy,  and 
assist  only  in  further  encumbering  with  unre- 
lated data  an  already  overburdened  medical 
literature.  The  writer  should  early  appreciate 
the  fact  that,  not  only  the  surest  means  of 
recognition  by  his  professional  associates,  but 
also  his  greatest  assurance  of  ultimately  adding 
somewhat  to  the  sum  total  of  scientific  knowl- 
edge, lies  in  the  thorough  and  persistent  study 
of  a  single  subject  rather  than  in  desultory 
studies  of  many  subjects.  In  a  series  of  articles 
giving  the  results  of  continued  observations 
on  the  same  topic,  material  already  published 
should  not  be  repeated.  The  writer  should 
particularly  guard  against  this  practice.  A 
brief  summary,  or  a  reference  to  previous 
articles  is  quite  sufficient  for  the  intelligent 
reader. 

It  might  be  supposed  that  anyone  who  wished  to  write 
would  know  what  he  wished  to  write  about.  But  many 
merely  wish  to  write.  To  recommend  that  such  a  person 
choose  a  subject  which  he  knows  well,  is  not  so  superfluous  as 


68  THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

it  seems.  What  is  well  known  seems  commonplace,  and  only 
the  unfamiliar  allures.  But  obviously  the  unfamiliar  must  be 
left  to  someone  to  whom  it  is  familiar. 

The  very  process  of  limiting  the  subject  to  manageable 
size  will  inevitably  result  in  suggesting  something  to  say  about 
it.  The  ideas  suggested  may  arise  very  disconnectedly  and  in 
very  crude  form.  The  first  thing  to  make  sure  of  is  that  you 
catch  and  fix  them  all.14 

LENGTH  OF  PAPERS 

A  paper  should  be  brief  and  clear,  demanding 
only  enough  of  the  time  and  patience  of  the 
reader  to  permit  the  presentation  to  him  of  the 
essential  points.  The  practice  in  some  of  our 
medical  societies  of  reading  only  abstracts  of 
articles,  thus  giving  more  time  for  discussion, 
might  well  be  adopted  more  generally.  It  is 
worthy  of  note  that  an  abstract  will  usually 
be  found  to  contain  all  the  essential  facts  of 
the  original  article.  Orations  for  special  occa- 
sions may  occupy  more  time;-  but,  even  under 
such  circumstances,  it  is  better  to  err  on  the 
side  of  brevity.  Special  papers  not  intended 
to  be  placed  before  an  audience  may  contain 
observations,  results  of  investigations,  and 
descriptions  of  interesting  cases  more  in  detail. 
However,  should  a  journal  article  necessarily 
extend  beyond,  five  thousand  words,  it  may  be 
wise  to  publish  it  serially  or  in  a  monograph. 


SUBJECT  MATTER:  LENGTH  OF  PAPERS        69 

If  it  is  published  serially,  an  opportunity  is 
also  afforded  for  more  complete  investigation 
of  the  subject. 

There  is  a  vast  amount  of  effete  and  worthless  material  in 
the  literature  of  medicine,  and  it  is  increasing  rapidly.  Our 
literature  is  in  fact  something  like  the  inheritance  of  the 
golden  dustman,  but  with  this  important  difference,  namely, 
that  when  the  children  raked  a  few  shells  or  bits  of  bone  from 
the  dustman's  heap,  and,  after  stringing  them  together  and 
playing  with  them  a  little  while,  threw  them  back,  they  did  not 
thereby  add  to  the  bulk  of  the  pile;  whereas  our  preparers  of 
compilations  and  compendiums,  big  and  little,  acknowledged 
or  not,  are  continually  increasing  the  collection,  and  for  the 
most  part  with  material  which  has  been  characterized  as  super- 
latively middling,  the  quintessential  extract  of  mediocrity .f 


Avoid  miscellaneous  topics. 

Choose  a  subject,  (i)  of  which  original  study 
has  been  made,  and  (2)  on  which  further 
investigations  may  be  made. 

Give  a  brief  summary  of  personal  observa- 
tions on  the  topic  previously  published. 

Review  literature  briefly. 

Make  papers  brief  and  clear. 

Present  to  an  audience  only  abstracts  of 
long  papers. 

Publish  long  papers  serially. 


CHAPTER  IX 

ARRANGEMENT:    THE  BEGINNING  AND   THE   END 

Good  organization  comes,  not  by  inspiration,  but  by  careful  thinking. 
Even  men  of  genius  arrange  and  organize  their  work  with  care.  Native 
talent  or  long  practice  may  greatly  abridge  the  process,  but  the  process 
is  necessary.  Bad  organization  and  confused  arrangement  have  caused 
as  many  failures  as  has  poverty  of  thought. — Manly  and  Powell. 

Accurate  thinking  and  accurate  expression 
are  a  preliminary  to  good  organization.  The 
practice  of  reading  a  few  good  articles  care- 
fully, and  of  thoroughly  analyzing  and  fixing 
in  mind  their  substance,  is  excellent  mental 
training  and  far  more  useful  than  a  superficial 
review  of  many  articles.  Of  equal  importance 
is  the  ability  to  select  from  the  vastness  of 
literature  and  of  science,  subjects  worthy  of 
special  study,  and  to  preserve  through  such 
study  a  certain  personal  mental  balance,  thus 
broadening  the  writer's  conception,  and  stimu- 
lating his  imagination. 

In  the  plan  of  the  construction  of  a  paper 
th'e  end  should  be  considered  with  the  begin- 
ning, and  in  the  course  of  the  work  both  should 
be  kept  in  view  for  purposes  of  assimilation 
and  logical  finality.  The  practiced  writer 
may  not  find  it  necessary  to  confine  himself 

70 


ARRANGEMENT:  BEGINNING  AND  END         71 

to  any  fixed  rule  in  the  matter  of  beginning 
and  ending,  but  the  inexperienced  writer  should 
adopt  the  safe  course,  that  is,  state  his  problem, 
his  observations,  and  his  deductions  briefly 
and  clearly  and  then  stop  without  hesitation. 

Undoubtedly  one  of  the  greatest  impedi- 
ments to  a  graceful  beginning  is  the  writer's 
self  consciousness.  Instead  of  trying  to  remem- 
ber how  others  have  written  he  should,  for  the 
time,  clear  his  mind  of  precedents  and  take 
honest  account  of  his  own  store.  He  should 
then,  with  dignity,  introduce  that  and  no 
more.  One  fixed  rule  should  be  adhered  to: 
Begin  promptly. 

Aside  from  the  summary,  the  end  of  a  paper 
should,  if  possible,  reach  the  climax  of  the 
argument  and  then  end,  leaving  a  sense  of 
completeness  and  not  redundancy  in  the  mind 
of  the  reader. 

Many  writers  pay  little  serious  attention  to  their  intro- 
ductions, but  whatever  needs  to  be  done  in  the  way  of  denning 
the  subject  for  the  reader  should  be  carefully  done.  At  no 
time  is  bewilderment  more  fatal  for  the  reader  than  at  the 
start.  If  he  gets  into  a  subject  with  a  thorough  understanding, 
he  is  able  to  surmount  more  serious  difficulties;  but  starting 
is  as  much  more  difficult  than  continuing  for  a  reader  as  it  is 
for  a  locomotive  attached  to  a  heavy  train.9 

TA11  writers,  even  the  most  skillful,  are,  in  the  degree  of  their 
skill,  at  some  care  how  to  begin.    An  unpractised  writer,  for 


72  THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

sheer  helplessness  at  the  outset,  may  never  begin;  he  may 
abandon  his  work  in  despair.  A  witty  beginning  is  something 
of  a  liberty;  for  an  emphatic  beginning,  the  reader  is  not  yet 
attuned;  nor  is  he  attuned  to  a  ponderous  introduction.  To 
begin  naturally  and  interestingly  is  no  mean  art. 

We  shall  not  begin  with  a  crude  or  heavy  lump  of  our 
matter,  yet  we  shall  try  to  touch  the  keynote  of  the  subject 
and  to  engage  in  the  argument  easily  but  directly.  We  have 
seen  that  the  beginnings  of  great  writers  are  direct;  we  shall 
not  begin,  then,  with  apologies,  with  wayward  or  fanciful 
approaches,  nor  with  any  kind  of  skirmishing. 

Of  ends,  authors  of  theses,  and  others,  seem  to  be  too  care- 
less; yet  how  telling  a  place  is  the  end  of  a  paper  for  a  weighty 
reflection  or  a  summary  view  of  the  field.  Of  ends,  I  will  only 
say,  "Do  not  end  anyhow;  let  your  leave-taking  be  easy, 
gracious,  and  impressive  in  proportion  to  the  theme,  not 
ponderous,  pompous,  epigrammatic,  or  austere."1 


Practice  thinking  accurately  before  transcrib- 
ing ideas. 

Avoid  superficial  reading.  Read  good  articles 
carefully  and  make  selections  therefrom. 

After  reading,  analyze  and  summarize  all 
data  to  be  used. 

Avoid  time-worn  introductions. 

Begin  promptly. 

Bring  the  argument  to  a  climax  at  the  end 
of  the  paper. 

Summarize  briefly. 

End  promptly. 


CHAPTER  X 
THE   OUTLINE 

The  subject  chosen,  facts  must  be  collected,  inferences  formulated, 
and  the  whole  presented  with  due  proportion  in  its  several  parts,  and  in 
language  as  nervous  and  lucid  as  the  author  can  command. — Allbu.lt. 

In  reviewing  the  literature  of  a  subject, 
the  writer  should  make  notes  on  cards  or  sheets. 
These  should  be  arranged  first  under  main 
headings  and  then  under  minor  headings,  in 
logical  working  order.  For  greater  convenience 
the  cards,  if  used,  may  be  placed  in  a  special 
compartment  file;  they  may  then  be  added 
to  or  rearranged  as  the  study  advances.  Some 
writers  make  satisfactory  progress  by  writing 
the  first  drafts  of  their  papers  on  cards. 

The  next  step  is  to  build  a  definite  frame- 
work on  which  to  construct  the  body  of  the 
paper.  The  importance  of  making  a  complete 
outline  will  always  be  appreciated  after  it 
has  once  been  done.  While  outlines  must  be 
varied  according  to  the  subject  under  dis- 
cussion, in  general  the  following  may  be  adapted 
to  almost  any  scientific  subject: 

i.  Introduction. — This  should  give  the  object 
of  the  paper,  the  character  and  extent  of  the 

73 


74  THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

original  data  to  be  discussed,  and  the  sequence 
of  the  article  if  it  is  one  of  a  series. 

2.  Historical   notes. — The    literature    of    the 
subject  should  be  reviewed.    The  writer,  when 
possible,  should  summarize  the  views  of  con- 
temporary workers  in  the  same  field  and  then 
restate  briefly  his  own  previous  studies  if  any. 
"It  would  save  us  hours  of  unnecessary  misery 
were  we  to  make  ourselves  acquainted  with  the 
views  of  prominent  men  of  former  times  who 
felt  as  we  and  talked  as  foolishly." 

3.  Materials  and  methods. — Here  should  be 
included  an  exact  statement  of  the  character 
and  amount  of  material  investigated,  of  the  old 
and  new  methods  of  investigation,  and  of  the 
operations,  devices,  and  so  forth,  used. 

4.  Results. — This  should  embody  a  detailed 
discussion  of  the  results  of  the  investigation, 
operative  procedures,  or  experimentation.  While 
findings    which    prove    the    author's    working 
hypothesis  may  properly  be  given  first  place  in 
the    argument,    other    findings    of    a   negative 
character  and  those  of  no  apparent  significance 
should  also  be  stated. 

5.  Summary   and   conclusions. — This    should 
consist  of  a  brief  review  of  the  work  done  and 
of  the  conclusions  which  may  properly  be  drawn 


THE  OUTLINE  75 

therefrom.  The  writer  should  have  in  mind 
that  this  portion  of  the  paper  is  usually  not  only 
the  first  portion  read,  but  that  it  may  be  the 
only  portion  read.  Further,  if  properly  made, 
the  summary  and  conclusions  may  serve  as  a 
most  desirable  form  of  abstract  to  be  published 
by  other  journals. 

6.  Bibliography. — Bibliographies  should  give 
the  writer's  name  and  initials,  the  title  of  the 
article,  the  name  of  the  periodical  in  which  it 
appeared,  the  year  of  publication,  the  volume 
number,  and  the  inclusive  paging. 

The  outline  completed,  the  first  draft  of  the 
paper  should  be  made.  If  possible  it  should  be 
dictated  to  a  stenographer  who  is  familiar  with 
medical  terms.  Should  it  be  necessary  to  write 
it  by  hand,  care  should  be  taken  to  write  legibly, 
leaving  wide  margins  and  wide  spacing  to  permit 
changes  and  notes  of  instruction.  The  use  of 
the  dictaphone  is  obviously  more  rapid  than 
writing  by  hand,  and  perhaps  no  more  difficult, 
when  once  learned,  than  dictating  to  a  sten- 
ographer, since  both  methods  require  practice. 
A  quiet  place  with  sufficient  space  to  spread 
out  notes  and  papers  should  be  selected  for 
dictating  or  writing.  All  available  precautions 
should  be  taken  against  interruption,  which  is 


76  THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

clearly  detrimental  to  inspiring  or  consecutive 
thought.  In  writing  or  dictating  from  classified 
notes  and  references  the  outline  of  the  paper 
should  be  closely  followed.  Dictating  from 
memory  leads  to  inaccuracies  in  statements  and 
to  faulty  construction. 

Experience  has  shown  that  if  the  writer  will  test  his  pro- 
duction to  see  if  it  is  in  accord  with  four  rules  (which  may  be 
readily  applied  to  the  synopsis  form),  he  will  be  able  to  detect 
all  important  defects  of  structure. 

The  facts  should  be  presented  in  an  order  which  is  logical 
for  the  reader. 

The  structure  should  be  divided,  first,  into  main  divisions, 
then  into  such  minor  divisions  as  will  bring  out  fully  all  im- 
portant relations  of  the  separate  facts. 

All  the  parts  of  each  division  should  be,  in  fact,  strictly 
coordinate. 

The  sum  of  all  parts  of  each  division  should  equal  the  whole 
of  that  division,  no  more  and  no  less.9 


Make  accurate  notes  on  separate  cards. 
Arrange  notes  under  subject  headings. 
File  cards  alphabetically. 
Make  a  complete  outline. 
Follow  the  outline  in  writing  the  paper. 
Select  a  quiet  place  for  writing,  with  ready 
access  to  cards  and  references. 

Write  legibly.     Remember  that  the  manu- 


THE  OUTLINE  77 

script  may  be  copied  by  someone  who  is  not 
familiar  with  the  medical  vocabulary. 

Make  a  draft  of  the  paper,  revise  it,  and  then 
put  it  aside. 

After  many  days  revise  with  a  new  under- 
standing. 


CHAPTER  XI 
CONSTRUCTION 

Finally,  it  has  been  well  said  that  the  style  of  writing  is  an  echo  of  the 
man's  own  soul.  A  blatant,  didactic  style  is  the  work  of  the  egotist;  a 
simple,  reserved  style,  the  sign  of  a  conservative  thinker;  a  careless,  ram- 
bling style,  evidence  of  a  slipshod  worker. — Editorial  Journal  American 
Medical  Association. 

The  successful  writer  on  medical  topics  is  the 
one  who  molds  his  writings  in  such  manner  and 
of  such  material  as  will  interest  and,  incidentally, 
please  the  reader.  Often,  however,  the  reverse 
of  this  is  true,  the  writer  obviously  being  so 
intent  on  saying  what  he  wishes  to  say  that  he 
does  not  consider  the  impression  he  may  leave 
in  the  minds  of  his  readers. 

If  the  writer  whose  sole  object,  for  various 
reasons,  is  a  desire  to  appear  in  print,  and  the 
writer  whose  ideas  are  tiresome  and  uncon- 
vincing because  of  his  complacent  belief  in  his 
own  omniscience,  are  left  out  of  consideration, 
there  remain,  among  others,  those  who  are 
actuated  by  the  hope  that  their  work  will  prove 
of  some  value.  The  writings  of  the  latter  will 
be  characterized  by: 

i.  A  careful  avoidance  of  exaggerating  his 
78 


CONSTRUCTION  79 

personal  observations   and   of  minimizing  the 
observations  of  others. 

2.  A  precision  in  the  use  of  words,   which 
alone  may  convince  the  reader  that  careful 
thinking  has  preceded. 

3.  A  dignified  orderliness  of  construction  in 
arranging  clauses,  sentences,  and  paragraphs, 
and  in  making  all  statements  brief  and  clear. 

4.  A  logical  sequence  in  the  statement  of 
facts,    theories,    and    deductions,    which    will 
stimulate  and  inspire  in  the  reader  a  desire  for 
further  investigation  of  the  same  subject. 

To  those  who  have  taken  lifelong  thought  of  how  to  write, 
who  have  striven  painfully  with  the  craft  of  this  supreme  art, 
the  view  of  it  as  a  happy  gift  seems  flippancy.  Let  the  can- 
didate be  assured  that  an  easy  and  interesting  style,  like  easy 
cricket,  implies  hard  practice. 

In  nature  there  is  no  great  and  small;  the  careful  precision, 
even  of  a  word,  often  so  bites  into  the  matter  as  to  lead  the 
author  to  revise  or  enlarge  his  thought;  slovenly  writing  is  not 
only  for  the  most  part  slovenly  thinking,  but  slovenly  habits 
of  expression  corrode  the  very  substance  of  the  thought. 

The  reader  must  be  carried  along  in  a  quick  and  equable 
current.  It  vexes  him  to  have  to  return  upon  sentence  after 
sentence  in  order  to  revise  the  author's  particular  meanings 
by  the  general  tenor  of  his  argument;  yet  in  reading  current 
prose  this  vexation  is  so  continual  that  we  scarcely  realize 
the  burden  and  tax  of  it.  A  sentence,  as  it  stands,  bears  a 
certain  meaning;  the  author,  however,  retorts  testily,  "Oh, 
you  know  I  did  not  mean  that" ;  but  he  has  written  it,  and  it  is 


8o 

not  fair  for  an  author  to  think  in  the  rough,  to  scribble,  un- 
chastened,  whatsoever  comes  into  his  head,  so  that,  as  Erasmus 
said,  "Apollo  only  could  discern  his  meaning,"  and  to  throw 
the  control  and  revision  upon  the  vigilance  of  the  reader. 
In  few  theses,  even  of  plain  matter  enough,  have  I  not  to  prop 
up  maimed  or  rickety  conceptions,  to  dissect  conventional 
phrases  or  equivocal  words,  and  to  sweep  aside  page  after 
page  of  loose  vesture  which  nowhere  fits  the  thought  closely, 
nor  moves  freely  with  it. 

By  disorderly  writing,  we  fall  into  worse  things  than 
muddle:  we  blunt  the  probity  of  our  minds;  we  slur  over 
difficulties  and  cover  up  ignorance.  Content  to  be  bunglers, 
we  lose  our  respect  for  truth  and  blunt  our  consciences.  On 
the  other  hand,  when  in  an  author's  prose  we  perceive  un- 
obtrusive scruples  and  feel  that  his  conscience  is  tender  for 
the  Tightness  of  things,  we  are  disposed  to  give  him  credit  in 
greater  issues  for  the  rectitude  which  he  exhibits  in  the  less. 

The  essayist,  seeing  his  design  as  with  the  eye,  will  describe 
his  vision  precisely,  cogently,  and  clearly;  and  if  he  will  then 
reduce  his  words  and  clauses  to  their  simplest  and  shortest 
forms,  rejecting  not  exuberances  and  superfluities  only  but 
also  matter  alien  in  that  place,  however  interesting  in  another, 
he  will  find  that,  in  the  main,  sound  matter  so  conceived  makes 
sound  style,  and  original  matter  original  style.  Force,  lucidity, 
unity,  simplicity,  and  economy  of  expression  are  virtues  which 
we  may  all  attain,  originality  will  be  as  God  pleases.1 

When  a  writer  appears  to  be  trying  very  hard  to  avoid 
obscurity  in  any  way,  as  when  he  introduces  long  footnotes  to 
explain  his  allusions,  or  translates  his  Latin  or  German  quota- 
tions in  parentheses,  he  at  once  suggests  the  very  thing  that 
he  tries  to  avoid.  No  one  can  attain  lucidity  in  this  way. 

The  clearest  style  is  generally  the  simplest.  The  writer 
whose  meaning  is  so  plain  it  never  gives  us  a  thought,  and 
whose  diction  is  so  simple  and  ordinary  that  it  seems  easy, 
until  we  try  to  imitate  it,  is,  so  far  as  this  quality  of  style  is 


CONSTRUCTION  8l 

concerned,  the  one  who  makes  the  most  successful  contri- 
bution to  literature.8 

THE  SPOKEN  ADDRESS 

Much  that  is  desirable  in  the  written  address 
may  be  applied  with  emphasis  to  the  oration  or 
extemporaneous  speech,  but  with  the  difference 
that  the  choice  of  a  topic  and  the  manner  of 
delivery  are  the  most  important  considerations. 
The  speaker  gains  an  advantage  by  his  oppor- 
tunity to  emphasize  with  tone  and  gesture 
certain  words  and  passages;  he  loses  by  the 
inability  of  his  audience  to  review  mentally 
what  he  has  already  said  while  he  is  still 
speaking.  Ideas,  facts,  and  hypotheses,  there- 
fore should  be  presented  with  only  enough  em- 
bellishment to  make  them  convincing.  Im- 
portant issues  lose  force — may  even  fail  to 
reach  the  mark — when  surrounded  with  pad- 
ding in  the  form  of  vague  conjectures  and 
generalities. 

Paucity  of  language  is  a  common  defect  of  extemporaneous 
speech,  and  a  stenographic  report  of  several  speeches  delivered 
by  the  same  person  will  exhibit  this  defect  in  a  mortifying 
manner  when,  in  response  to  the  requests  of  those  who  have 
heard  them,  the  orator  attempts  to  collect  them  for  publica- 
tion. It  is  then  difficult  for  him  to  believe  his  vocabulary  so 
meager,  the  forms  of  his  sentences  so  similar,  that  so  many 
phrases  often  recur,  and  that  there  seems  to  be  an  irresistible 
6 


82  THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

tendency  to  use  the  same  words,  even  when  other  words 
express  the  shade  of  meaning  which  he  endeavors  to  com- 
municate, with  greater  accuracy  than  the  familiar  terms  which 
go  so  trippingly  over  his  lips.  Excess  of  repetition  in  the  same 
speech  is  a  serious  evil  and  sufficient  to  account  for  the  lack 
of  success  which  attends  many  who  are  nobly  endowed  in 
voice  and  figure  and  not  destitute  of  a  rich  and  expressive 
vocabulary.16 

Write  on  topics  that  will  instruct  and  interest 
the  reader. 

In  writing,  keep  in  mind  the  reader's  possible 
point  of  view  and  knowledge  of  the  subject. 

Avoid  hazy  construction  and  hypothetical 
conjectures. 

Avoid  exaggeration;  adhere  to  facts  and 
verify  them. 

Keep  in  mind  the  importance  of  logical, 
clear,  and  brief  construction. 

Follow  the  outline. 


CHAPTER  XII 
CASE  HISTORIES:  ABSTRACTS 

No  matter  how  trifling  the  matter  on  hand,  do  it  with  a  feeling  that 
it  demands  the  best  that  is  in  you.  and  when  done,  look  it  over  with  a 
critical  eye.  not  sparing  a  strict  judgment  of  yourself. — Osier. 

Very  often  in  composing  medical  papers  the 
writer  neglects  or  mutilates  the  case  history. 
It  would  seem  that  no  two  writers  even  by 
chance  select  the  same  form  of  construction, 
and  further,  that  few  of  them  follow  a  uniform 
style  for  their  own  consecutive  histories. 

The  following  illustrative  examples  not  only 
show  the  absurdities  which  sometimes  appear  in 
print,  but  they  also  define  the  editor's  and  the 
publisher's  attitude  toward  such  construction. 

CASE  REPORTS 

A  case  report  should  tell  its  story  in  clear,  unambiguous 
narrative  style.  It  should  not  be  transcribed  verbatim  et 
literatim  from  the  original  records,  hastily  jotted  down  at  the 
time  the  various  events  occurred.  The  jerky,  telegraphic 
style  of  the  record  sheet  may  result  in  actual  padding.  The 
following  is  an  example  of  this  style : 

Patient,  Giuseppe  Roverano.  Age,  35.  Color,  white. 
Nationality,  Italian.  Occupation,  laborer.  Condition, 
married.  Complaint,  inflammatory  rheumatism.  Entered 
Brown  Hospital,  Jan.  15,  1909. 

All  the  important  data  are  given  in  the  following  sentence: 

G.  R.,  an  Italian  laborer,  aged  thirty -five  years,  entered 
83 


84  THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

Brown  Hospital,  January  15,  1909,  complaining  of  inflam- 
matory rheumatism. 

Negative  findings. — Space  should  not  be  devoted  to  unim- 
portant findings,  or  those  which  have  no  bearing  on  the  subject 
under  consideration.  Negative  findings  are  of  value  in  few 
instances.  They  should  be  cited  only  when  the  author  is 
convinced  that  they  add  to  tl  'orce  of  the  argument  he  is 
making. 

Confusion  of  time. — A  common  fault  in  case  reports  is 
illustrated  in  the  following: 

Case  3.  A.D.,  Feb.  8,  1912.  Hairpin  in  the  bladder  and 
renal  infection.  Girl  22  years  old,  first  seen  three  years  ago. 
.  .  .  Two  years  ago  her  kidney  was  explored.  ...  A  year  ago 
this  patient  went  to  the  city  hospital.  .  .  .  Soon  after  this 
I  heard  of  her  as  a  patient  with  marked  polyuria.  .  .  .  From 
the  early  part  of  the  summer  until  August  she  had  retention 
of  urine  and  had  to  be  catheterized.  .  .  .  We  took  her  in  on 
this  account.  ...  At  one  time  while  she  was  in  the  hospital 
she  attempted  to  catheterize  herself.  .  .  .  Five  weeks  ago 
she  allowed  a  friend  ...  to  attempt  catheterization.  .  .  . 
The  friend  told  her  the  next  day  that  she  had  allowed  to  slip 
into  the  bladder  a  hairpin  that  had  been  used  to  stiffen  the 
catheter.  ...  I  saw  her  three  weeks  ago  and  found  the 
hairpin.  ...  I  was  not  then  allowed  to  remove  it.  ...  On 
February  3  she  told  me  that  the  day  before  she  had  pain  in 
the  left  renal  region.  .  .  .  Examination  next  day  showed 
marked  cystitis.  The  pin  was  removed.  .  .  .  Within  four 
days  .  .  .  the  patient  was  discharged. 

January,  1913.  Two  weeks  after  leaving  the  hospital 
another  pin  was  found  in  the  bladder.3 

Comment. — The  foregoing  is  typical  of  many 
case  histories  actually  offered  for  publication. 
The  confusion  of  dates  and  time,  and  the  liberal 


CASE  HISTORIES:  ABSTRACTS  85 

use  of  the  word  ago  in  this  case,  are  bewildering 
and  absurd. 

Coined  abbreviations. — Another  fault  is  the  use  of  original 
or  coined  abbreviations,  often  quite  unintelligible  to  the 
reader,  such  as  "W.  D.  &  N."  for  "well  developed  and  nour- 
ished," "H.  &  L.  O.  K."  for  "heart  and  lungs  normal,"  and 
"L.  L.  L.  N.  R."  for  "left  lower  lobe  no  rales."  Abbreviations 
not  in  dictionaries  and  ordinary  textbooks  are  permissible 
only  in  tables,  and  then  they  must  be  explained  in  footnotes  or 
be  obviously  self-explanatory. 

Tenses. — These  should  be  used  consistently.  If  the  present 
tense  is  used  for  the  sake  of  vividness  in  reporting  clinical 
examinations  or  pathologic  findings,  it  should  be  maintained 
throughout  the  paragraph.  The  simplest  way  usually  is  to 
use  the  past  tense,  at  least  in  the  narrative  portions  of  the 
report.3 

ABSTRACTS 

In  making  abstracts  of  papers  the  writer  is 
often  too  nonchalant,  too  regardless  of  the 
appearance  and  the  comprehensiveness  of  his 
work.  Abstracts  are  to  be  found  in  almost 
every  medical  journal  hopelessly  mixed  as  to 
tense,  person,  number,  concord,  and  so  forth; 
this  in  spite  o'f  the  many  suggestions  and  printed 
rules  which  are  sent  out  willingly  and  patiently 
by  editors  and  publishers  of  medical  papers. 

Form  of  abstract. — Unless  a  direct  quotation 
is  made,  abstracts  should  be  made  in  the  third 
person.  The  exact  title  of  the  original  article, 
the  name  of  the  journal  in  which  it  is  published, 
the  year,  volume,  and  page  should  be  given. 


86  THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

In  the  first  paragraph  the  general  scope  of  the 
article  should  be  given,  that  is,  whether  the 
work  is  original,  a  description  of  technic,  case 
reports,  or  a  review  of  the  literature  with  con- 
clusions. 

If  the  author's  work  is  original,  his  results  and 
views  should  be  emphasized.  If  it  is  a  technical 
description  of  an  operation  or  apparatus,  the 
various  steps  or  parts  should  be  enumerated  in 
just  enough  words  to  convey  the  author's  idea. 
If  it  consists  of  reports  of  cases  the  important 
points,  with  conclusions,  should  be  summarized 
Similar  cases  should  not  be  duplicated.  If  the 
work  is  a  review  of  literature  and  reports  of 
cases,  the  conclusions  only  should  be  given  and 
the  cases  omitted.  The  value  of  the  article 
should  not  be  commented  on. 


Do  not  overlook  the  importance  of  an  in- 
telligible case  history. 

Do  not  say  case  when  you  mean  patient,  and 
vice  versa. 

Do  not  mix  hopelessly  time,  person,  and 
number  in  writing  case  histories  and  abstracts. 
Follow  publishers'  rules,  suggestions,  and  out- 
lines. 


CHAPTER  XIII 

CHAPTER,   PARAGRAPH,  AND   SENTENCE 

If  he  forgets  paragraph  and  chapter,  the  author  makes  the  way  less 
easy  for  us;  but  if  his  sentences  are  awkward,  shapeless,  and  perplexed, 
his  ore  must  be  very  precious  if  we  are  to  toil  on  with  him.  Is  there  not  a 
certain  arrogance  in  the  author  who  cares  little,  or  not  at  all,  for  unseem- 
liness; who  will  put  us  out  of  step  without  apology? — Allbutt. 

It  is  expected  that  the  practical  writer  will 
know  best  how  to  arrange  his  own  material  into 
chapters,  paragraphs,  and  sentences.  Though 
little  versed  in  the  craft  of  writing,  some  writers, 
with  intuitive  art,  select  the  most  advantageous 
and  at  the  same  time  the  most  attractive  form 
of  presentation.  Others,  however,  must  take 
definite  thought  in  order  to  secure  clearness, 
sequence,  and  unity;  it  may  even  be  necessary 
for  them  to  return  to  the  study  of  formal  rules. 
But  if  they  would  remember  that  the  paragraph 
should  carry  the  thought  in  a  wave  of  in- 
creasing emphasis,  and  always  with  directness, 
until  the  climax  is  reached,  there  would  be  little 
danger  of  the  discussion  drifting  into  unprofit- 
able channels. 

A  chapter  consists  of  sections,  visible  or  invisible,  and  on 
the  order  and  content  of  the  sections  much  of  the  lucidity 
even  of  the  chapter  depends:  a  mechanical  order  is  better 

87 


88  THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

than  none;  an  organic  order — an  order  of  thought — is  better 
still. 

On  turning  now  to  the  paragraph,  I  find  in  too  many 
papers  that  this  feature  has  a  precarious  existence,  or  none. 
Not  infrequently  indeed,  in  page  after  page,  sentences  are 
treated  as  paragraphs,  or  the  paragraphs,  if  any  there  be,  do 
not  correspond  with  natural  parts  of  the  argument,  but  are 
fragments  or  hunks  of  the  body  of  the  thesis  rather  than  limbs 
of  it,  merely  mechanical  parcels,  like  a  string  of  sausages. 
Now  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  a  paragraph,  unless  it  be  in  a 
summary  or  emphatic  position,  is  more  than  a  sentence;  it  is 
a  group  of  sentences,  one  bearing  on  another,  and  thus  com- 
passing a  wider  meaning  than  the  sentence;  it  has  accordingly 
its  own  subject  and  unity,  though  of  a  scope  far  narrower  than 
that  of  the  chapter.  A  careful  portioning  of  the  matter  into 
paragraphs,  all  sufficient  and  various  enough  to  contain  the 
several  limbs  of  the  argument,  but  none  too  long  for  the 
reader  to  grasp  at  once,  is  a  great  assistance  to  him;  but  thus 
to  isolate  mere  sentences  and  to  hop  by  paragraphs,  as  it  were 
upon  stepping-stones,  is  almost  as  fatiguing  as  it  is,  on  the 
other  hand,  to  trudge  over  lengths  of  stuff  without  beginning, 
middle,  or  end,  and  without  those  pauses  and  recoveries  on 
the  way  that  the  slender  faculties  of  man  require.1 

There  is  no  one  rule  for  constructing  paragraphs,  as  there 
is  none  for  constructing  chapters  or  sentences.  Efforts  to 
formulate  a  single  rule  are  successful  only  when  they  exclude 
from  consideration,  as  bad,  all  examples  that  do  not  conform 
to  the  rule.  The  principal  qualities  to  aim  at  are  unity, 
coherence,  clearness,  and  emphasis.  Unity  is  largely  depend- 
ent upon  excluding  inappropriate  ideas;  coherence  depends 
upon  arrangement  and  sentence  connection;  clearness  is  a 
function  of  organization,  connection,  sentence  structure, 
grammar,  and  vocabulary;  emphasis  is  usually  a  matter  of 
climax,  but  even  without  climactic  arrangement  the  end  of 
the  paragraph  is,  for  purely  mechanical  reasons,  the  most 
emphatic  position. 


CHAPTER,  PARAGRAPH,  AND  SENTENCE        89 

The  essentials  of  the  sentence  are  good  connection,  sound 
organization,  and  correct  grammar.  To  the  untrained  writer 
sentences  are  hard,  crystallized  affairs.  When  once  a  thought 
has  taken  form  in  words,  it  seems  practically  impossible  to 
change  it.  The  experienced  writer  knows  that  a  sentence  is  as 
easy  to  manipulate  as  a  lump  of  putty.  He  can  change  its 
shape,  twist  it  about,  divide  it,  join  it  with  another,  do  what 
he  will  with  it.  For  style,  for  effectiveness,  skillful  organiza- 
tion of  the  sentence  is  even  more  important  than  correct 
grammar.  The  intelligent  reader  can  usually  correct  faults  of 
grammar  with  little  effort;  badly  constructed  sentences  can 
be  cured  only  by  rewriting.14 

Having  trained  your  ear  on  good  prose,  turn  your  sentences 
this  way  and  that  before  you  pass  your  revise  for  press,  and 
fix  them  in  the  form  which  reads  best ;  the  rules  you  may  read 
afterwards. 

In  prose,  then,  for  breadth  of  conception,  dignity,  or  im- 
pressiveness,  the  ear  and  the  understanding  are  willing  to  be 
constrained  by  suspension;  but  mere  drags,  delays,  or  inver- 
sions, without  such  rewards,  they  resent.1 

Long  compound  sentences  consisting  of  many  statements 
strung  together  with  and's  and  but's  are  peculiarly  crude. 

Avoid  abrupt  change  in  the  point  of  view  within  a  sentence. 

Do  not  make  many  sentences  in  a  composition  or  a  passage 
monotonously  alike  in  construction.  This  principle  is  often 
violated  (a)  by  beginning  many  sentences  near  each  other  with 
after,  with  this  or  these,  or  with  there  is  or  there  are;  (b)  by  using 
with  noticeable  frequency  a  compound  sentence  with  two 
members  of  about  equal  length  joined  by  and  or  but;  (c)  by 
using  participial  or  absolute  phrases  with  noticeable  fre- 
quency ;  and  (d)  by  the  habitual  use  of  so  as  a  connective. 

The  opening  sentences  of  a  formal  composition  should  be 
self-explanatory;  they  should  be  clear  to  the  reader  without 
reference  to  the  title  of  the  composition. 

Paragraphing,  if  properly  employed,  gives  the  reader  as 


90  THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

much  assistance  in  understanding  a  whole  composition  as 
punctuation  gives  him  in  understanding  a  sentence.  Parts  of 
a  composition  that  are  distinct  in  topic  may,  by  paragraphing, 
be  made  distinct  to  the  eye  also, — an  effect  that  decidedly 
promotes  clearness. 

A  passage  that  serves  as  an  introduction  or  a  conclusion  to 
a  composition  consisting  of  several  paragraphs  should  be 
paragraphed  separately,  even  if  it  consists  of  only  one  or  two 
sentences. 

The  beginning  of  a  new  paragraph  naturally  leads  the 
reader  to  think  that  the  discussion  of  a  new  topic  is  beginning. 
Therefore,  to  begin  a  new  paragraph  where  the  discussion  of  a 
new  topic  does  not  begin,  misleads  the  reader. 

See  that  every  paragraph  has  one  central  topic,  under  which 
all  the  statements  in  the  paragraph  logically  fall. 

A  sentence  or  a  short  passage  which  the  writer  wishes  to 
make  especially  emphatic  may  be  paragraphed  separately. 

A  composition  more  than  300  words  long  should  not  be 
written  without  paragraphing. 

A  composition  no  longer  than  150  words  should  usually 
be  written  without  any  paragraph  divisions. 

Do  not  paragraph  with  needless  frequency  and  without 
good  reason.17 

Study  the  construction  of  chapters,  para- 
graphs, and  sentences. 

Study  particularly  rules  on  the  construction  of 
sentences,  and  apply  the  rules  in  practice  until 
you  acquire  confidence  in  your  own  manipula- 
tion of  words. 

Make  clear  cut,  clean  sentences. 


CHAPTER  XIV 

REFERENCES 

There  is  hardly  any  one  detail  of  a  well  prepared  and  well  written 
article  that  will  give  a  better  and  clearer  idea  of  a  writer's  methods,  or 
foster  a  greater  confidence  in  the  accuracy  and  soundness  of  his  views, 
than  well  chosen,  well  arranged,  absolutely  correct  references. — Jour. 
Am.  Med.  Ed.  Assn. 

While  writers  differ  in  their  methods  of  taking 
and  making  notes,  there  can  be  no  question  as 
to  the  necessity  for  accuracy.  The  simplest  and 
most  business-like  method  is  to  place  comments, 
exact  quotations,  accurate  abstracts,  and  so 
forth,  on  separate  cards  at  the  time  of  reading. 
The  value  of  doing  this  will  be  fully  realized 
only  when  it  is  found  necessary  to  refer  to  the 
original  article,  which  may  no  longer  be  acces- 
sible, in  order  to  correct  carelessly  made  notes 
and  references.  In  this  connection  it  may  be 
suggested  also  that  when  only  an  abstract  has 
been  read,  the  writer,  in  referring  to  it,  should, 
in  all  fairness,  make  reference  to  the  abstract 
rather  than  to  the  original  article  from  which 
entirely  different  conclusions  might  have  been 
drawn.  Definiteness,  accuracy,  and  uniformity 
in  references  cannot  be  too  strongly  urged.  The 
too  confident  or  careless  writer  would  not  be 

91 


92  THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

flattered  if  he  should  happen  to  overhear  the 
comments  of  librarians  and  editors  after  they 
have  searched  vainly  for  one  of  his  inaccurate 
references.  The  data  for  a  complete  and  useful 
reference  are:  (i)  the  author's  name  and 
initials,  (2)  the  title  of  the  article,  (3)  the  prop- 
erly abbreviated  name  of  the  periodical  in  which 
it  appeared,  (4)  the  year  of  publication,  (5)  the 
volume  number,  and  (6)  the  inclusive  paging. 
Emphasis  should  be  placed  on  the  inclusive 
paging,  as  it  is  a  matter  of  considerable  impor- 
tance to  the  reviewer  to  know  the  length  of  an 
article. 

The  following  are  examples  of  correct  refer- 
ences : 

1.  Cannon,  W.  B.,  and  Washburn,  A.  L. :   An 

explanation  of  hunger.  Am.  Jour.  Physiol., 
1912,  xxix,  441-454. 

2.  Faber,  K,,  and  Lange,  G. :   Die  Pathogenese 

und  Aetiologie  der  chronischen  Achylia 
gastrica.  Ztschr.  f.  klin.  Med.,  1908, 
Ixvi,  247-276. 

3.  Pavlov,  I.  P.:   The  work   of  the   digestive 

glands.  Ed.  2,  London,  Griffin,  1910, 
90  pp. 

The  author  who  places  a  proper  estimate  on  the  importance 
of   having  his  references  correct  can  always,   by  due  and 


REFERENCES  93 

proper  diligence  and  effort,  prevent  the  occurrence  of  typo- 
graphical errors.  The  printer,  poor  devil,  has  much  to  answer 
for  here  and  hereafter,  but  errors  in  an  author's  references 
invariably  tell  more  eloquently  of  the  writer's  neglect  than  of 
the  printer's  mistakes.* 

A  common  fault  lies  in  taking  a  reference  from  another's 
bibliography  as  though  it  were  thereby  Gospel  truth  itself. 
Faith  may  remove  mountains,  but  hi  science  ye  are  known  by 
your  works.  "If  the  great  Schmidt  gives  this  reference,  it  is 
good  enough  for  me."  That  is  where  trouble  begins — or  is 
continued;  for  the  possibilities — nay,  the  probabilities — are 
that  Professor  Dr.  Geh.  Schmidt  allowed  an  inexperienced 
assistant  to  round  up  the  references;  that  another,  equally 
untried,  omitted  to  verify  them  in  any  way,  and  in  copying, 
altered  this  one  unconsciously;  while  a  third  let  the  printer 
still  further  maltreat  it.  The  result,  fair  without  but  false 
within,  may  mean  nothing  even  to  Fetlock  Jones  or  Doctor 
Swatson.  Take  no  reference  for  granted.  Verify  the  reference 
that  your  best  friend  gives  you.  Verify  the  reference  that  your 
revered  chief  gives  you.  Verify,  most  of  all,  the  references 
that  you  yourself  found  and  jotted  down.  To  err  is  human, 
to  verify  is  necessary.15 


Verify  all  references ;  be  positive  that  they  are 
complete  and  accurate. 

Index  all  articles  when  reading  or  abstracting. 

Refer  to  original  articles.  Do  not  give  ref- 
erences from  previous  references. 

If  an  abstract  is  referred  to,  state  the  fact 
that  it  is  an  abstract. 


CHAPTER  XV 
REVISION 

The  mania  to  "tell  it  all"  hinders  clearness  and  precision  and  unity 
and  emphasis.  Moreover,  a  composition  that  empties  the  writer  rarely 
fills  the  reader;  and  the  lees  of  any  subject  are  bitter  to  the  palate. — 
Manly  and  Powell. 

The  writer  who  appreciates  his  own  limita- 
tions and  the  fact  that  nothing  has  ever  been 
done  so  well  that  it  cannot  be  done  better,  will 
be  his  own  most  severe  critic,  and  in  thus 
criticizing  will  find  ways  and  means  to  improve 
his  work. 

The  inexperienced  writer,  in  particular,  should 
not  ignore  the  importance  of  a  careful  revision 
of  his  manuscript  before  submitting  it  for  pub- 
lication, and  such  a  revision  should  not  be  done 
hastily.  Few  emergencies  arise  in  which  it  is 
not  possible  to  prepare  an  article  and  then  put 
it  aside  for  a  brief  period,  when  it  may  be 
reviewed  with  clearer  vision.  In  several  careful 
readings  of  a  clean  typewritten  draft  of  the 
paper  with  wide  margins  and  spacing,  the 
following  points  should  be  given  special  atten- 
tion: 

i.  Changes  in  the  arrangement  of  material. 

94 


REVISION  95. 

If  the  outline  has  been  properly  made  and  faith- 
fully followed,  few  changes  will  be  necessary. 

2.  Proper  placing  of  illustrations,  tabulations, 
and  subheads,  and  the  following  of  a  uniform 
order  of  arrangement  of  bibliographic  references. 

3.  The  addition  of  data,  ideas,  missing  links 
in  the  argument,  and  so  forth.    The  writer  can- 
not be  too  careful  in  this  portion  of  his  work  in 
eliminating  inaccuracies,  in  expanding  incom- 
plete statements,  in  verifying  data  and  statistics, 
and  in  correcting  proper  names,  dates,  numbers, 
and  bibliographic  references. 

In  the  final  review  of  the  diction  careful 
discrimination  must  be  exercised  in  the  choice 
of  words,  in  the  arrangement  of  phrases,  and, 
in  general,  in  the  consideration  of  the  impression 
which  will  be  conveyed  to  the  hearer  or  the 
reader.  For  example,  if  the  writer  will  put  him- 
self in  the  place  of  the  reader  or  the  audience  he 
will  be  quick  to  note  that  invariably  a  strong 
point  is  weakened  by  repetition.  A  speaker  may 
safely  drive  his  point  home  by  repeating  once, 
while  a  second  repetition  is  always  fatal.  A 
writer  may  not  effectively  repeat,  save  in  other 
words. 

For  many  it  is  extremely  difficult  to  acquire  the  art  of 
"boiling  down."  If  the  structure  of  the  writing  is  carefully 


96  THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

made  out,  much  may  be  done  at  the  start  by  the  exclusion  of 
"all  unnecessary  ideas  and  by  the  brief  statement  of  the  ideas 
which,  being  subordinate,  need  not  be  given  full  expression. 
In  writing  the  final  draft,  many  words  may  be  saved  by 
guarding  against  sentence  structure  which  is  faulty  or  which 
entails  the  use  of  needless  circumlocutions.  In  speaking  we 
often  get  well  into  a  sentence  before  we  have  considered  how 
we  can  end  it;  consequently  we  are  compelled  to  use  extra 
words  for  lack  of  proper  sentence  planning.  There  is  no  such 
excuse  for  verbosity  in  writing.9 

Do  not  hesitate,  either  now  or  later,  to  sacrifice  any  idea  or 
material  not  strictly  germane  to  your  purpose.  It  takes 
courage  and  hardness  to  do  this,  but  the  sacrifice  will  be  re- 
warded. Excellence  lives  by  sacrifice.  Partiality  to  one's 
own  ideas,  unwillingness  to  omit  what  seems  to  have  been 
well  thought  or  well  said  is  a  main  cause  of  deformed,  dispro- 
portioned  writing.14 

Again,  excogitate  matter  and  argument  as  we  may  before 
beginning  to  write,  yet,  as  we  write,  thought  develops,  and 
may  develop  considerably;  thus  the  later  part  of  the  first 
draft  proceeds  on  larger  lines,  and  is  fuller  in  thought  than  the 
earlier  part.  In  the  second  draft,  therefore,  the  writer  has  to 
consider  the  earlier  part  in  the  light  of  the  later,  and  has  to 
remodel  the  narrower  conception  of  that  part  on  the  broader 
conception  proper  to  the  whole.  This  is  the  toughest  of  the 
tasks  of  revision,  for  it  may  be  necessary  to  break  up  and 
reconstruct  the  piece. 

On  the  third  draft  the  composition  is  submitted  to  a  still 
closer  revision;  but  the  main  work  of  this  stage  is  to  recast 
paragraphs  and  sentences  until  they  run  logically,  and  bear 
but  one  meaning,  and  this  inevitably:  perverse  constructions 
and  equivocal  or  defective  words  give  way  to  their  betters. 
Ornamental  and  figurative  passages  also  undergo  purgation: 
in  scientific  papers  purgation  should  generally  go  to  expurga- 
tion; yet  our  writing  should  be  lively  as  well  as  true,  and  some 


REVISION  97 

happy  allusions,  if  distilled  to  their  essence,  may  be  carried 
in  upon  an  adjective,  or  upon  a  noun  coloured  by  an  apt 
association.1 

Revise  manuscript  carefully  several  times; 
put  it  aside  and  then  revise  it  again. 

Verify  statistical  data,  charts,  illustrations, 
legends,  and  references. 

Eliminate  inaccuracies  in  the  discussion  and 
in  names,  dates,  and  so  forth. 

7 


CHAPTER  XVI 
THE  TITLE 

The  four  rules  for  the  preparation  of  an  article  for  a  journal  will  then 
be:  (1)  Have  something  to  say.  (2)  Say  it.  (3)  Stop  as  soon  as  you 
have  said  it.  (4)  Give  the  paper  a  proper  title. — Billings. 

The  title  of  a  paper  should  set  forth  the 
character  and  if  possible  the  extent  of  the  article, 
not  only  to  enlist  the  attention  of  the  interested 
reader,  but  also  for  the  convenience  of  future 
reviewers  and  bibliographers.  Valuable  material 
is  often  hidden  under  a  casual  or  irrelevant  title. 
If  only  a  limited  phase  of  the  subject  is  to  be 
discussed,  the  limitation  should  be  indicated. 

In  recording  experimental  findings  it  is  very 
important  to  indicate  in  the  title,  the  type  and 
the  extent  of  the  experiment.  The  title  should 
be  a  concise  and  brief  index  of  the  material 
under  discussion.  This  is  a  matter  which  should 
not  only  be  emphasized  but  enforced.  When  it 
is  overlooked  or  neglected  by  the  writer,  the 
editor  should  be  inflexible  in  his  insistence  that 
a  comprehensive  title  is  supplied.  The  writer 
who  fails  to  provide  a  proper  title  has  no  just 
reason  to  complain  or  even  to  feel  injured  when 

98 


THE   TITLE  99 

his  article  is  omitted  from  references  or  from  an 
important  review  of  the  subject. 

First  impressions  are  strong  impressions;  a  title  ought 
therefore  to  be  well  studied  and  to  give,  as  far  as  its  limits 
permit,  a  precise  indication  of  what  is  to  come.1 

In  behalf  of  the  readers  and  bibliographers  of  the  future,  I 
would  appeal  to  authors,  and  more  especially  to  editors,  to 
pay  more  attention  than  many  of  them  do  to  the  matter  of 
titles  and  indexes.  The  men  to  whom  your  papers  are  most 
important,  and  who  will  make  the  best  use  of  them  provided 
they  know  of  their  existence,  are  for  the  most  part  hard 
workers,  busy  men,  who  have  a  right  to  demand  that  their 
library  tables  shall  be  provided  with  properly  prepared 
materials  and  not  with  shapeless  lumps.5 


Select  a  title  which  may  be  correctly  classified 
in  general  indexes. 

Indicate  in  the  title  the  contents  and  scope 
of  the  article. 

Avoid  generalizations;  be  brief  and  clear. 


CHAPTER  XVII 
VOLUME   OF   OUTPUT 

There  is  a  dead  medical  literature,  and  a  live  one.  The  dead  is  not 
all  ancient,  the  live  is  not  all  modern.  There  is  none,  modern  or  ancient, 
which,  if  it  has  no  living  value  for  the  student,  will  not  teach  him  some- 
thing by  its  necropsy.  But  it  is  with  the  live  literature  of  his  profession 
that  the  medical  practitioner  is  first  of  all  concerned. — Billings. 

There  should  be  a  determined  effort  among 
writers,  editors,  and  publishers  to  standardize 
and  classify  material  for  publication  in  order  to 
decrease  the  enormous  output  of  medical  books 
and  journals.  Besides  the  fact  that  many  of 
the  journals  now  in  existence  are  a  discredit  to 
the  medical  profession,  there  is  also  the  deplor- 
able fact  that  their  doubtfully  valuable  contents 
must  be  included  in  our  already  overcrowded 
indexes. 

In  the  disposition  of  material  submitted  to 
them,  editors  should  not  be  dependent  either  on 
tradition  or  existing  conditions.  In  the  ac- 
ceptance or  rejection  of  articles  publishers 
should  not  be  dependent  on,  or  influenced  by, 
the  yearly  subscription  list  or  the  influential 
patron.  If  a  uniformly  high  standard  of 


VOLUME  OF  OUTPUT  101 

publication  cannot  otherwise  be  maintained,  the 
medical  editor  and  the  medical  publisher  should 
perform  separate  functions.  It  may  be  difficult 
for  the  owner  and  publisher  of  a  journal  to 
reject  manuscript;  an  independent  editor  need 
not  be  thus  hampered. 


A  large  medical  library  is  in  itself  discouraging  to  many 
inquirers,  and  I  have  become  quite  familiar  with  the  peculiar 
expression  of  mingled  surprise,  awe,  and  despair,  which  is  apt 
to  steal  over  the  face  of  one  not  accustomed  to  such  work, 
when  he  finds  himself  fairly  in  the  presence  of  a  mass  of 
material  which  he  wishes  to  examine  for  the  purpose  of  com- 
pleting his  ideal  bibliography  of — let  us  say  epilepsy,  or 
excision,  or  the  function  of  the  liver. 

Let  such  inquirers,  as  well  as  those  who  regret  that  they 
have  no  access  to  large  libraries,  and  must  therefore  rely  on  the 
common  textbooks  and  current  periodicals  for  bibliography, 
console  themselves  with  the  reflection  that  much  the  larger 
part  of  all  of  our  literature  which  has  any  practical  value 
belongs  to  the  present  century,  and,  indeed,  will  be  found  in 
the  publications  of  the  last  twenty  years.5 

It  is  always  painful  for  the  medical  editor  to  reject  a  manu- 
script, not  only  because  it  may  mean  the  loss  of  a  valued  sub- 
scriber but  because  he  always  dislikes  to  hurt  a  colleague's 
feelings.  It  cannot  be  denied,  however,  that  occasionally  it 
affords  the  medical  editor  almost  vindictive  pleasure  to  liber- 
ally blue  pencil  some  of  the  articles  that  come  to  his  desk. 
As  a  matter  of  fact,  few  realize  the  amount  of  earnest  effort 
and  painstaking  labor  which  a  conscientious  editor  bestows 
upon  many  a  paper  to  make  it  readable  and  worth  while. 
Looking  backward,  it  must  be  freely  conceded  that  the  articles 


102          THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

nowadays  published  in  the  leading  medical  journals  are 
superior  both  from  a  scientific  and  literary  standpoint  to  those 
in  the  past,  but  still  there  is  much  room  for  improvement. 
Indeed  one  can  only  wonder  at  times  why  some  articles  have 
been  written  at  all,  since  they  are  neither  original  nor  in- 
structive. Certain  writers  seem  to  labor  under  the  delusion 
that  an  imposing  array  of  citations  from  the  general  literature 
on  the  subject  discussed,  invests  their  own  papers  with 
additional  importance  in  the  eyes  of  others  and  gives  them  the 
stamp  of  erudition.  It  would  be  a  wholesome  surprise  to 
these  gentlemen  to  learn  how  near  some  of  their  contributions 
were  to  rejection  by  reason  of  their  prosy  uninteresting  char- 
acter. Many  of  us  will  remember  the  old  time  puzzle  that 
consisted  of  placing  a  trivial  object  in  a  small  box  and  this  in 
turn  in  a  larger  one  and  so  on  until  the  whole  package  had 
reached  formidable  proportions.  Too  many  articles  seem  to 
be  constructed  upon  this  very  plan,  for  it  is  necessary  to  do  a 
lot  of  unraveling  before  the  real  object  is  reached.  Most 
readers  have  neither  the  time  nor  patience  to  do  this;  life  is 
too  short.  Consequently  many  a  paper  goes  unread.  On  the 
other  hand,  there  is  the  writer  who  is  afflicted  with  an  excess 
of  brevity,  and  therefore  omits  much  that  would  have  con- 
tributed materially  to  the  value  and  completeness  of  his  con- 
tribution. Again,  we  meet  with  the  apologetic  writer,  who 
prefaces  his  paper  with  several  pages  of  explanation  of  the 
motives  which  prompted  his  effort,  his  realization  of  the 
honor  conferred  upon  him  by  the  request  to  contribute,  and 
other  bombastic  platitudes.  Can  you  blame  the  editor  if 
he  liberally  blue  pencils  such  copy?  Then  there  is  the  author 
who  is  addicted  to  what  might  be  termed  medical  slang, 
such  as  "acute  and  chronic  abdomen,"  "acute  and  chronic 
appendix,"  "hematogenous  kidney,"  who  does  a  "knee  joint" 
or  an  "elbow  joint,"  and  whose  patients,  marvelous  to  relate, 
"have  a  temperature."4 


VOLUME  OF  OUTPUT  103 

Do  not  write  unless  you  have  something 
original  or  instructive  to  contribute. 

Publish  special  articles  in  journals  devoted  to 
that  subject. 

Do  not  always  select  the  so-called  popular 
journal  as  a  medium  of  publication. 


CHAPTER  XVIII 
THE   MANUSCRIPT 

Now  there  are  kinds  of  form  which  all  literary  works  must  possess, 
and  there  are,  in  addition,  rules  to  which  each  work  must  conform  when 
it  is  written  according  to  some  special  formula. — Bostwick. 

Manuscript  should  be  typewritten  on  one 
side  of  a  good  grade  of  white  paper,  with  double 
space  between  the  lines.  A  margin  of  from  one 
to  two  inches  should  be  reserved  on  the  left  of 
the  page  on  which  to  make  notations  and  cor- 
rections. A  carbon  copy  on  thinner  paper 
should  be  retained  by  the  author  to  safeguard 
against  accident  to,  or  loss  of,  the  original,  and 
with  which  to  compare  the  publisher's  proof. 
The  original  copy  should  always  be  sent  to  the 
publisher. 

The  name  of  the  author  and  the  number  of 
the  page  should  be  written  in  the  upper  right 
hand  corner  of  the  sheet.  Headings  should  be 
placed  in  the  order  of  their  importance;  for 
example,  large  capitals  for  main  headings,  small 
capitals  for  center  headings,  and  bold  face  type, 
or  italics  for  subordinate  or  side  headings. 
Tables,  bibliographies,  explanations  of  figures, 
and  all  notes  should  be  written  under  their 

104 


THE  MANUSCRIPT  105 

individual  headings  on  separate  sheets  for  the 
convenience  of  the  printer.  The  conclusion  or 
summary  should  also  be  written  on  separate 
sheets,  and  in  this  form  may  often  be  used  as 
an  abstract  for  publication  in  journals,  or  as  an 
outline  for  the  author's  memorandum.  Con- 
secutive paging,  however,  should  be  maintained 
throughout  the  article.  If  a  page  is  omitted, 
or  an  insert  is  made,  it  should  be  clearly  marked 
(p.  \y2  or  p.  i  a). 

Bibliographies  should  be  arranged  alpha- 
betically, according  to  authors,  and  numbered 
consecutively.  The  numbers  should  be  placed 
in  the  text  only  when  an  author  is  referred  to 
more  than  once,  or  when  his  name  is  not  men- 
tioned in  the  text,  thus  avoiding  the  annoyance  of 
numerous  reference  numbers  on  the  printed  page. 

Illustrations  should  be  numbered  from  one  up 
and  their  numbers  placed  in  the  text  consecu- 
tively. All  necessary  identification  data  should 
be  written  on  the  backs  of  illustrations ;  that  is, 
the  indication  of  top  or  bottom,  the  figure 
number,  the  name  and  address  of  the  author, 
and  the  title  of  the  article.  This  writing  should 
be  done  lightly  with  ink  in  order  not  to  disfigure 
the  face  of  the  picture.  The  legends  should  be 
written  on  manuscript  paper,  numbered  to 


106          THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

correspond  to  the  illustrations,  and  attached  to 
the  manuscript,  not  to  the  illustrations.  The 
amount  of  reduction  should  be  marked  on 
drawings  so  that  their  dimensions  will  not 
exceed  the  printed  page.  Drawings  should  be 
made  at  least  twice  the  diameter  of  the  repro- 
duction. Reduction  by  photography  permits 
refinement  of  line  and  fine  shading  without 
excessive  care  in  making  the  original.  All  illus- 
trations should  be  studied  carefully  with  refer- 
ence to  reduction  or  cutting.  This  may  mean 
not  only  a  great  saving  in  the  cost  of  reproduc- 
tion but  will  enhance  the  value  of  the  illus- 
tration by  emphasizing  important  details. 

If  a  special  arrangement  is  desired,  that 
cannot  be  designated  by  serial  numbers,  the 
outlines  of  the  illustrations  may  be  traced  on 
sheets  of  paper  and  forwarded  with  the  draw- 
ings or  photographs. 

The  number  of  illustrations  to  be  used  and  the 
date  on  which  the  article  is  presented  for 
publication  should  be  noted  on  the  title  page. 

Manuscript  should  not  be  rolled  or  folded;  it 
should  be  mailed  in  a  flat  envelope,  sealed. 
If  illustrations  are  inclosed,  they  should  be 
guarded  by  sheets  of  cardboard  placed  inside 
the  envelope.  They  should  not  be  mounted. 


THE  MANUSCRIPT  107 

Do  not  submit  manuscript  for  publication 
until  it  has  been  made  as  perfect  as  possible. 

Number  pages  correctly. 

Place  the  author's  name  on  each  page. 

Write  tables,  bibliography,  legends,  and  sum- 
mary or  conclusions  on  separate  sheets,  with 
consecutive  paging. 

Compare  the  illustrations  with  the  legends 
and  with  the  figure  numbers  in  the  text. 

Mark  reductions  on  illustrations.  Eliminate, 
by  trimming,  all  unnecessary  details  from  photo- 
graphs and  photomicrographs  before  sending 
them  for  reproduction. 

Mark  the  top  of  the  picture. 

Send  the  original  (typewritten)  manuscript  to 
the  publisher;  do  not  roll  or  fold  it. 

Retain  a  duplicate  copy  of  the  manuscript. 


CHAPTER  XIX 
THE  PROOF 

Remember  that  changes  in  type  cost  money.  The  omission  of  a  single 
word  in  the  middle  of  a  paragraph  may  necessitate  resetting  the  whole  of 
this  from  that  point  on;  and  if  such  alteration  is  made  in  the  page  proof 
it  may  further  involve  repaging  the  entire  article  or  chapter. — Manual 
of  Style,  University  of  Chicago  Press. 

The  author,  in  reading  proof,  should  compare 
it  carefully  with  the  carbon  copy  of  his  manu- 
script. All  changes  from  the  original  should 
be  observed,  not  alone  for  the  purpose  of 
detecting  errors  of  interpretation  and  of  type, 
but  to  note  for  future  use  changes  made  in  the 
punctuation,  general  construction,  and  so  forth. 
If  the  manuscript  has  not  been  carefully  edited 
before  being  sent  for  publication,  the  author 
will  find  it  to  his  advantage  painstakingly  to 
check  the  proof  with  the  carbon  copy  of  the 
original  manuscript  and  later  to  check  the 
corrected  proof  with  the  printed  article.  This 
practice,  persistently  followed,  will  in  time 
enable  the  author  to  anticipate  the  idiosyn- 
crasies of  different  editors  and  publishers,  and 
he  may  even  become  proficient  in  meeting  their 
varied  requirements;  at  the  same  time  he  will 
acquire  discrimination  in  the  use  of  certain  rules 

1 08 


THE  PROOF  109 

and  regulations,  and  hence,  more  confidence  in 
his  own  methods. 

Corrections  and  changes  should  be  made  on 
the  margin  of  the  proof  in  legible  handwriting 
by  means  of  the  signs  and  marks  employed  by 
proofreaders.  It  should  be  remembered  that 
proof  of  changes  or  revisions  is  not  submitted, 
and  the  printer  should  not  be  required  to 
decipher  carelessly  written  inserts.  Proof  should 
be  corrected  with  ink.  Pencil  marks  become 
blurred  and  are  often  unintelligible  by  the  time 
the  proof  reaches  the  printer. 

Proof  should  be  read  and  returned  to  the 
publisher  without  delay.  The  original  manu- 
script should  always  be  returned  with  the  proof. 
If  reprints  are  desired,  the  order  blank  provided 
by  the  publisher  should  be  filled  out  and 
attached  to  the  proof.  If  such  a  blank  is  not 
provided,  a  written  order  should  be  attached  to 
the  proof.  In  either  case  a  copy  or  memoran- 
dum of  the  order  should  be  retained. 

If  it  is  found  necessary  to  change  or  add  a  word  or  phrase, 
an  effort  should  be  made  to  substitute  new  matter  equal  in 
length  to  that  deleted,  or  to  add  matter  which  will  fill  one  or 
more  complete  lines. 

The  necessity  for  many  "changes  may  be  avoided  if  the 
author  will  exercise  a  little  care  to  decide  in  advance  what  he 
wishes  done  and  will  mark  his  copy  accordingly.  Lack  of 


no          THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

sufficient  thought  at  the  right  time  is  responsible  for  many 
later  changes  which  would  be  avoided  by  a  careful  writer  and 
which  prove  highly  expensive. 

An  additional  reason  for  care  and  decision  at  the  right 
time — more  potent  than  that  of  expense — is  that  eleventh- 
hour  additions  or  changes  are  often  made  in  such  a  manner  as 
to  be  out  of  harmony  with  the  context,  or  inconsistent  in 
matter  of  style  with  the  rest  of  the  work,  and,  when  too  late, 
arise  to  plague  the  author,  the  publisher,  the  proofreader,  and 
the  reading  public. 

Marks  or  queries  made  by  the  proofreader  should  never 
merely  be  erased  by  the  author.  If  for  any  reason  the  author 
does  not  agree  with  the  mark,  he  should  draw  a  line  through  it, 
substituting  his  own  mark  for  it.  If  such  queries  or  marks 
are  erased,  the  proofreader  is  likely  to  repeat  them  at  a  later 
stage,  or  even  to  make  a  correction  on  his  own  responsibility 
which  may  not  be  desired.  This  can  be  obviated  if  the  author 
will  pay  attention  to  all  such  marks  as  they  are  encountered 
on  the  galley  proofs. 

Do  not  draw  a  line  around  corrections  made  in  the  margin, 
for  printers  are  trained  to  regard  such  a  mark  as  indicating 
that  the  matter  so  inclosed  is  not  to  be  set  up. 

Page-proofs. — All  preliminary  questions  having  been 
settled,  the  type  is  next  "made  up"  into  pages,  and  a  "page- 
proof"  is  sent  to  the  author,  accompanied  by  the  marked 
galley  proofs.  At  this  stage  it  is  dangerous  and  expensive 
to  make  any  further  changes  or  additions.  The  addition  or 
deletion  of  a  single  line  may  mean  that  every  following  page 
may  have  to  be  made  over  to  the  end  of  the  chapter;  since 
every  page  must  be  exactly  the  same  length  as  every  other 
page.  On  the  other  hand,  the  page-proofs  should  be  read 
carefully  by  the  author  to  see  (i)  that  the  appropriate  running- 
heads  and  folios  are  in  position,  (2)  that  no  lines  are  trans- 
posed or  omitted,  especially  at  the  top  or  at  the  foot  of  pages, 
(3)  that  footnotes  are  in  place  on  their  appropriate  pages, 


THE  PROOF  III 

(4)  that  alterations  indicated  on  galley  proofs  have  been 
correctly  made,  (5)  that  letters  or  punctuation  marks  have  not 
been  dropped  from  the  ends  of  lines. 

PROOFREADER'S  MARKS 

d>  Dele,  or  delete:  take X  out. 

9  Letter  r/versed — turn. 

#  Put  in^pace. 

C  ClcQe  Up — no  space. 

VA  Bad^spacing^space^norc  evenly. 

**^  Wrojfg  font:  character  of  wrong  size  or 

style. 
*»"  Transp0e. 

^fake  a  new  paragraph, 
^ndent;  or,  put  in  an  em-quad  space. 
C  C  Carry  to  the  left. 

3        Cjrry  fo  the  right. 
n          "Elevate. 


Imperfect  type — correct. 

Space  shows|between  words — push  down. 

Straighten  crooked  line. 

llStraighten  aligJEfnent. 

Restore  or  retain  words  crossed  out. 

Print  (£&,  f?,  etc.)  as  a  ligature. 

Words  are  omitted  from,  or  in^opy. 

Query  to  author:  Is  this  corrgc^.? 

Putin^ 

Put  in  1 


Put  in  LOWER  CASE. 
Put  in  reman  type. 
Put  in  italia  type. 
Put  in  bold  face  type. 


112          THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

Read  and  return  proof  without  delay. 

Compare  proof  with  the  carbon  copy  of  the 
manuscript. 

Note  whether  statistical  data,  legends,  refer- 
ences, and  the  spelling  of  proper  names  and  of 
unusual  words  are  correct. 

Answer  questions  written  on  the  margin  of 
proof. 

Make  corrections  definite  and  legible  on  the 
margin  of  the  galley  or  page  proof. 

Return  original  manuscript  with  proof  O.  K. 
with  signature. 

Avoid  alterations. 

Order  reprints. 


CHAPTER  XX 
QUOTED   MATERIAL,   INDEX,   AND   COPYRIGHT 

If  you  fail  to  find  anything  you  want  in  your  library,  the  chances  are 
a  hundred  to  one  that  you  fail,  not  because  what  you  seek  is  not  there, 
but  because  you  do  not  understand  the  apparatus  that  has  been  made 
ready  to  your  hand  for  that  purpose. — Utter. 

Complete  reference  should  be  given  for  quoted 
matter,  and  the  quotations  should  be  exact. 
If  copyrighted  matter  is  used,  except  in  brief 
quotations,  consent  to  publish  it  should  be 
obtained. 

Expressed  in  untechnical  language,  infringement  may  be 
described  as  copying,  in  whole  or  in  part,  the  copyrighted 
work  of  another  with  intent  to  evade  the  law.  And  this 
applies  not  only  to  the  complete  work  but  to  any  part  of  it — 
just  how  large  or  how  small  a  portion  has  never  yet  been 
defined  with  any  satisfactory  exactness.  ...  It  can  there- 
fore be  regarded  as  the  well  settled  rule  that  if  any  considerable 
passage  of  a  copyrighted  work  is  to  be  made  use  of  in  a  new 
work,  the  consent  of  the  owner  of  the  copyright  must  first 
be  obtained.14 

The  making  of  an  index  is  a  craft  in  itself. 
Usually  the  author  does  not  find  it  desirable  to 
learn  this  craft,  and  arranges  to  have  the  index 
made  by  someone  who  understands  this  work. 

The  author  may  assist  the  indexer  by  pro- 
viding a  title  that  is  a  clear  index  of  the  contents 

8  113 


114          THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

of  the  article,  by  grouping  material  in  orderly 
sequence,  and  by  dividing  it  with  main  headings 
and  subheadings. 

An  index,  unlike  the  book  itself,  can  scarcely  be  too  prolix 
or  liberal.  The  index,  unlike  the  text,  is  not  read.  It  is 
referred  to,  and  only  those  "catch- words"  actually  needed  are 
read  at  any  one  time.  Hence  every  word  which  will  aid  in 
directing  the  reader  to  the  subject  he  seeks  should  appear  in 
the  index.  To  determine  what  are  such  words,  the  compiler 
should  frequently  ask  himself:  "If  I  myself  needed  information 
on  this  subject,  what  are  the  words  or  sub-subjects  under  which 
I  myself  should  be  likely  to  look  for  it  in  another  man's  work?" 
This  point  of  view  will  often  assist  him  in  covering  the  needs  of 
"the  other  man"  who  will  use  his  work.14 


Be  exact  in  copying  quotations. 

Be  exact  in  giving  credit  for  ideas  and 
material  obtained  from  others. 

Conform  to  standard  rules  for  publishing 
quoted  material. 

Give  a  title  that  will  reveal  the  content  of 
the  article. 

Make  a  liberal  index. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

1.  Allbutt,  T.  C.:    Notes  on  the  composition  of  scientific 
•    papers.    New  York,  Macmillan,  Ed.  2,  1905,  pp.  xiii, 

39-41,  49,  50-51.  51-53,  53-55,  56-58,  58-61,  96-97, 
60-64,  2O>  22>  23»  8,  27,  26-27,  3O,  162,  65,  66,  67,  76, 

I3-H,  7- 

2.  American  Medical  Association  style  book.    Chicago,  Am. 

Med.  Assn.,  1915,  p.  39. 

3.  Suggestions  to  medical  authors  and  American  Medical 

Association    style    book.     Chicago,  Am.  Med.  Assn., 
1917-  PP-  32~33,  io-ii,  24. 

4.  Editorials:     (i)   The  importance  of  correct  references; 

(2)  The  medical  editor — some  of  his  problems.     Jour. 
Am.  Med.  Ed.  Assn.,  1916,  iii,  pp.  29,  30-31. 

5.  Billings,  J.  S. :    An  address  on  our  medical  literature. 

Boston  Med.  and  Surg.  Jour.,  1881,  cv,  pp.  219,  221,  219. 

6.  Bostwick,    A.    E.:     Earmarks    of    literature.      Chicago, 

McClurg,  1914,  pp.  26,  27,  31. 

7.  Boynton,  P.  H.:    Principles  of  composition.     Chicago, 

Ginn,  1915. 

8.  Crothers,  S.  McC.:    The  pleasures  of  an  absentee  land- 

lord and  other  essays.    Boston,  Houghton  Mifflin,  1916, 
229  pp. 

9.  Earle,  S.  C, :  The  theory  and  practice  of  technical  writing. 

New  York,  Macmillan,  1911,  pp.  127,  121-122,  210. 

10.  Giddings,  F.  H.:  Twenty-five  suggestions. 

11.  Greenough,  J.  B.,  and  Kittredge,  G.  L.:   Words  and  their 

ways  in  English  speech.     New  York,  Macmillan,  1912, 
pp.  128,  21,  55. 

"5 


n6          THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

12.  Klein,  W.  L. :   Why  we  punctuate  or  Reason  versus  rule 

in  the  use  of  marks.  Minneapolis,  Lancet  Publ.  Co., 
Ed.  2,  1916,  pp.  i,  n,  209,  1 60,  167-168,  164-165,  201, 
175- 

13.  Lounsbury,  T.  R.:    The  standard  of  usage  in  English. 

New  York,  Harper,  [c.  1908],  pp.  54,  297-298. 

14.  Manly,  J.  M.,  and  Powell,  J.  A.:    A  manual  for  writers. 

Chicago,  University  of  Chicago  Press,  1913,  pp.  25,  23, 
99-100,  158,  159,  36-38,  39-40.  45-65.  12-13,  21,  15, 
179-185,  210,  167. 

15.  Place,   F.:    Verify   your   references.     New  York   Med. 

Jour.,  1916,  civ,  p.  699. 

16.  Whitford,  W.:   Physicians  as  speakers.    Jour.  Am.  Med. 

Assn.,  1900,  xxxv,  p.  743. 

17.  Woolley,   E.    C.:    Handbook   of   composition.     Boston, 

Heath,  [c.  1907],  pp.  90-107,  169,  35,  29-31,  59,  65,  78, 
79,  83,  84,  85. 


STANDARD   ABBREVIATIONS  FOR   MEDICAL 
JOURNALS 

Abhandl.  d.  k.  preuss.  Akad. 

d.  Wissensch Abhandlungen    der    koniglich     preussischen 

Akademie  der  Wissenschaften,  Berlin. 
Abhandl.     a.     d.      Neurol., 
Psychiat.,    Psychiol.    u.   i. 

Grenzgeb Abhandlungen  aus  der   Neurologic,   Psychi- 
atric, Psychiologie  und  ihre  Grenzgebieten, 

Berlin. 

Acta  chir.  Scandin Acta  chirurgica  Scandinayica,  Stockholm. 

Acta  dermat.-ven Acta  dermato-venereolo_gica,  Stockholm. 

Acta  med.  Scandin Acta  medica  Scandinavica,  Stockholm. 

Acta  oto-laryngol Acta  oto-laryngologica,  Upsala. 

Aerztl.    Ber.    d.    k.    k.    allg. 

Krankenh.  zu  Wien Aerztliche     Berichte     des     kais.-koniglichen 

allgemeinen  Krankenhauses  zu  Wien. 
Aerztl.  Cor.-Bl.  f.  Bohmen.  .Aerztliches  Correspondenzblatt  fUr  Bohmen, 

Prag. 
Aerztl.  Vereinsbl.  f .  Deutschl.Aerztliches    Vereinsblatt    fttr    Deutschland, 

Dresden. 

Alabama  Med.  Jour Alabama  Medical  Journal,  Birmingham. 

Albany  Med.  Ann Albany  Medical  Annals,  Albany,  New  York. 

Alger.  m6d Alger  medical,  Alger. 

Alienist  and  Neurol Alienist  and  Neurologist,  St.  Louis. 

Allg.  med.  Centr.-Ztg Allgemeine      medicinische      Central-Zeitung, 

Berlin. 
Allg.  Wien.  med.  Ztg Allgemeine     Wiener     medizinische     Zeitung, 

Wien. 
Allg.  Ztg.  f.  Chir Allgemeine    Zeitung    ftir    Chirurgie,    innere 

Heilkunde    und   ihre    Httlfswissenschaften, 

Augsburg. 
Allg.  Ztschr.  f.  Psychiat Allgemeine   Zeitschrift   fttr   Psychiatric    und 

psychisch-gerichtliche  Medicin,  Berlin. 
Allg.  Ztg.  f.  Mil.-Aerzte Allgemeine     Zeitung      fttr      Militaar-Aerzte, 

Braunschweig. 

Am.  Chem.  Jour American  Chemical  Journal,  Baltimore. 

Am.  Druggist American  Druggist,  New  York  City. 

Am.  Jour.  Anat .American  Journal  of  Anatomy,  Philadelphia. 

Am.  Jour.  Clin.  Med '....American     Journal     of     Clinical     Medicine. 

Chicago. 
Am.  Jour.  Dis.  Child American  Journal  of   Diseases  of   Children, 

Chicago. 
Am.  Jour.  Insan American  Journal  of   Insanity,   Utica,   New 

York. 
Am.  Jour.  Med.  Sc American  Journal  of  the   Medical  Sciences, 

Philadelphia. 

Am.  Jour.  Nursing American  Journal  of  Nursing,  Philadelphia. 

Am.  Jour.  Obst American  Journal  of  Obstetrics  and  Diseases 

of  Women  and  Children,  New  York  City. 

117 


Il8          THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

Am.  Jour.  Ophth American  Journal  of  Ophthalmology,  Chicago. 

Am.  Jour.  Orthop.  Surg American    Journal    of    Orthopedic    Surgery, 

Philadelphia. 

Am.  Jour.  Pharm American  Journal  of  Pharmacy,  Philadelphia. 

Am.  Jour.  Physiol.  Optics. .  .  American   Journal    of    Physiological    Optics, 
Southbridge,  Massachusetts. 

Am.  Jour.  Physiol American  Journal  of  Physiology,  Baltimore. 

Am.  Jour.  Pub.  Health American  Journal  of  Public  Health,  Chicago. 

Am.  Jour.  Roentgenol American   Journal    of    Roentgenology,    New 

York  City. 

Am.  Jour.  Surg American  Journal  of  Surgery,  New  York  City. 

Am.  Jour.  Syphilis American  Journal  of  Syphilis,  St.  Louis. 

Am.   Jour.    Trop.    Dis.    and 

Prev.  Med American  Journal  of  Tropical  Diseases  and 

Preventive  Medicine,  New  Orleans. 

Am.  Jour.  Urol American  Journal  of  Urology,  New  York  City. 

Am.  Jour.  Vet.  Med American   Journal   of   Veterinary    Medicine, 

Chicago. 

Am.  Med American  Medicine,  Philadelphia.. 

Am.  Quart.  Roentgenol American  Quarterly  of  Roentgenology,  Pitts- 
burgh. 

Am.  Rev.  Tuberc American  Review  of  Tuberculosis,  Baltimore. 

An.  de  cien.  med Anales  de  ciencias  medicas,  Madrid. 

An.  de.  Facul.  med Anales  de  la  Facultad  de  medicina,  Universi- 

dad  de  Montevideo. 

An.  d.  Inst.  mod.  clin.  med..  Anales  del  Institute  modelo  de  clinica  m£dica, 
Buenos  Aires. 

An.  de  oftal Anales  de  oftalmologia,  Mexico. 

An.  r.  Acad.  de  med Anales   de   la   real   Academia   de    medicina, 

Madrid. 

An.  Soc.  ginec.  espan Anales  de  la  Sociedad  ginecologica  espanola, 

Madrid. 

Anat.  Rec Anatomical  Record,  Philadelphia. 

Anat.  Anz Anatomischer  Anzeiger,  Jena. 

Ann.  d.  Cheiri Annalen  der  Chemie  (Liebig's),  Leipzig. 

Ann.  d.  Geburtsh Annalen  der  Geburtshiilfe  iiberhaupt  und  der 

Entbindungsanstalt  zu  Marburg  insbeson- 
dere,  Leipzig  und  Mannheim. 

An.  f .  d.  ges.  Heilk Annalen  fur  die  gesammte  Heilkunde,  Karls- 
ruhe. 

An.  d.  Phys.  u.  Chem Annalen  der  Physik  und  Chemie,  Leipzig. 

Ann.  chim  anal Annales    de    chimie    analytique    applique    a 

1'industrie,  a  1'agriculture,  a  la  pharmacie, 
et  a  la  biologic,  et  revue  de  chemie  analyt- 
ique reunies,  Paris. 

Ann.  de  chim.  et  de  phys Annales  de  chimie  et  de  physique,  Paris. 

Ann.  clin.  de  Montpellier.  .  .Annales    cliniques    de    Montpellier,    Mont- 
pellier. 

Ann.  de  dermat.  et  de  syph..Annales'  de  dermatologie  et  de  syphiligraphie, 
Paris. 

Ann.  de  gynec.  et  d'obst.  ..  .Annales    de    gynecologic    et  •  d'obstetrique, 
Paris. 

Ann.  d'hyg.  pub Annales  d'hygigne  publique  et  de  m6decine 

legale,  Paris. 

Ann.  de  1'Inst.  Pasteur Annales  de  1'Institut  Pasteur,  Paris. 

Ann.  d.  mal.  de  la  peau Annales   des   maladies   de  la  peau  et  de  la 

syphilis.  Paris. 

Ann.  d.  mal.  ven Annales  des  maladies  veneriennes,  Paris. 


ABBREVIATIONS  FOR  MEDICAL  JOURNALS    119 

Ann.  de  mfid Annales  de  m&iecine,  Paris. 

Ann.  de  m6d.  et  chir.  inf..  .  .Annales  de  medecine  et  chirurgie  infantiles, 

Paris. 

Ann.  d'ocul Annales  d'pculistique,  Bruxelles. 

Ann.  sc.  Univ.  Jassy Annales  scientifiques  de  1'Universite'  de  Jassy, 

Jassy. 

Ann.  d'ig.  sper Annali  d'igiene  sperimentale,  Roma., 

Ann.  d.  1st.  Maragliano  p.  la 

cura  d.  tuberc Annali  dell'Istitute  Maragliano  per  lo  studio 

e  la  cura  della  tubercolosi  e  di  altri  malattie 

infettive,  Genpva. 

Ann.  di  med.  nav. Annali  di  medicina  navale,  Roma. 

Ann.  di  ottal Annali  di  ottalmologia,  Pavia. 

Ann.  Gynaec.  and  Paediat.    .Annals     of      Gynaecology     and     Paediatry. 

Philadelphia  and  Boston. 

Ann.  Ophth Annals  of  Ophthalmology.  St.  Louis. 

Ann.     Otol.,     Rhinol.,     and 

Laryngol Annals  of  Otology,  Rhinology,  and  Laryngol- 
ogy, St.  Louis. 

Ann.  Surg Annals  of  Surgery,  Philadelphia. 

Ann.  Trop.  Med.  and  Para- 

sitol Annals  of  Tropical  Medicine  and  Parasitology, 

Liverpool. 

Apoth.-Ztg Apotheker-Zeitung,  Berlin. 

Arb.  a.  d.  k.  Gsndhtsamte  . .  Arbeiten  aus  dem   kaiserlichen  Gesundheit- 

samte,  Berlin. 
Arb.  a.  d.  neurobiol.  Lab.  d. 

Gesellsch.  d.  Wissensch. .  .  Arbeiten  aus  dem    neurobiologischen  Labor- 

atorium  der  Gesellschaft  der  Wissenschaften 

in  Warschau,  Berlin. 
Arch.  f.  Anat.  u.  Physiol. .  .  .Archiv  fiir  Anatomic  und  Physiologic,  Berlin 

und  Leipzig. 
Arch.   f.   Anat.,    Physiol.    u. 

wissensch.  Med Archiv  fiir  Anatomic,  Physiologic  und  wissen- 

schaftliche  Medicin,  Leipzig. 

Arch,  f .  Augenh Archiv  fur  Augenheilkunde,  Wiesbaden. 

Arch.  f.  Dermat.  u.  Syph.  .Archiv  fiir  Dermatologie  und  Syphilis.  Wien 

und  Leipzig. 
Arch.    f.    Entwcklngsmechn. 

d.  Organ Archiv      fiir      Entwickelungsmechanik      der 

Organismen,  Leipzig. 
Arch.  f.  exper.  Path.  u.  Phar- 

makol Archiv   fiir   experimentelle    Pathologic    und 

Pharmakologie,  Leipzig. 
Arch,  f .  d.  ges.  Physiol Archiv    fiir    die    gesamte    Physiologic    des 

Menschen  und  der  Tiere,  Bonn. 

Arch.  f.  Gynaek Archiv  fiir  Gynaekologie,  Berlin. 

Arch.  f.  Hyg Archiv  fiir  Hygiene,  Munchen  und  Leipzig. 

Arch,  f .  Kinderh Archiv  fiir  Kinderheilkunde,  Stuttgart. 

Arch.  f.  klin.  Chir Archiv  fiir  klinische  Chirurgie,  Berlin. 

Arch.  f.  Laryngol.  u.  Rhinol.  .Archiv    fiir    Laryngologie    und    Rhinologie, 

Berlin. 

Arch,  f .  inikr.  Anat Archiv  fiir  mikroskopische  Anatomic,  Bonn. 

Arch,  f .  Ohrenh Archiv  fUr  Ohrenheilkunde,  Leipzig. 

Arch.  f.  Ohren-,  Nasen-,  u. 

Kehlkopfh Archiv  fur  Ohren-,   Nasen-,   und   Kehlkopf- 

heilkunde,  Leipzig. 
Arch.  f.  Ophth Archiv  fiir  Ophthalmologie,  Leipzig. 


120          THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

Arch.  d.  Pharm Archiv  der  Pharmazie,  Berlin. 

Arch.  f.  Physiol Archiv  fiir  Physiologic,  Leipzig. 

Arch,  f .  Protistenk Archiv  fflr  Prolislenkunde,  Jena. 

Arch,  f .  Psychiat Archiv    fur    Psychiatric    und    Nervenkrank- 

heiten,  Berlin. 
Arch.  f.   Schiffs   u.   Tropen- 

Hyg Archiv    fiir    Schiffs    und     Tropen-Hygiene, 

unter    besonderer     Beruchsichtigung     der 

Pathologic  und  Therapie,  Kassel. 

Arch.  f.  Verdauungskr Archiv  fiir  Verdauungs-Krankheilen,  Berlin. 

Arch,  f .  Zellforsch Archiv  fiir  Zellforschung,  Leipzig. 

Arch,  de  biol Archives  de  biologic,  Li6ge. 

Arch.  Dermat Archives   of   Dermatology,    New   York   and 

Philadelphia. 
Arch.  Dermat.  and  Syph. . . .  Archives  of  Dermatology  and   Syphilology, 

Chicago. 

Arch.  g6n.  de  chir Archives  generates  de  chirurgie,  Paris. 

Arch.  g6n.  de  med Archives  g6n€rales  de  me'decine,  Paris. 

Arch.  Int.  Med Archives  of  Internal  Medicine,  Chicago. 

Arch,  internal,  de  chir Archives  internationales  de  chirurgie,  Gand. 

Arch,  internal,  de  laryngol.. Archives  internationales  de  laryngologie,   de 

rhinologie  et  d'otologie,  Paris. 
Arch,     internal,     de     phar- 

macod Archives   internationales   de  pharmacodyna- 

mie  et  de  therapie,  Gand  et  Paris. 
Arch,  internal,  de  physiol. . .  Archives     internationales      de      physiologic, 

Liege  el  Paris. 
Arch.  ilal.  d.  biol Archives    ilaliennes    de    biologic,    Roma     e 

Torino. 
Arch.  d.  mal.  de  1'app.  di- 

geslif ! Archives  des  maladies  de  1'appareil  digeslif  et 

de  la  nulrilion,  Paris. 
Arch.  d.  mal.  du  coeur Archives  des  maladies  du  cceur,  des  vaisseaux, 

el  du  sang,  Paris. 

Arch,  de  m6d.  d.  enfants. . .  .Archives  de  me'decine  des  enfants,  Paris. 
Arch,     de    med.    exper.    et 

d'anat.  palh Archives     de     mgdecine     experimenlale     et 

d'anatomie,  palhologique,  Paris. 
Arch,    de    med.    el    pharm. 

mil Archives  de  me'decine  el  de  pharmacie  mili- 

laires  (publiees  par  ordre  du  Ministre  de 

la  guerre),  Paris. 

Arch.  me'd.  d'Angers Archives  me'dicales  d'Angers,  Angers. 

Arch.  med.  de  Toulouse Archives  mddicales  de  Toulouse,  Toulouse. 

Arch.  med.  beiges Archives  me'dicales  beiges,  Bruxelles. 

Arch.    mens.    d'obst.    el    de 

gyn6c Archives    mensuelles     d'obsletrique     et     de 

gynecologic,  Paris,  formerly  Obstetrique. 

Arch,  de  neurol Archives  de  neurologic,  Paris. 

Arch.  Neurol.  and  Psychiat.  .Archives     of     Neurology     and     Psychiatry, 

Chicago. 
Arch,  de  oftal.  hispano-am..  Archives  de  oftalmologia  hispano-americanos 

Madrid. 
Arch.  Ophth Archives    of     Ophthalmology,      New    York 

City. 

Arch.  Otol Archives  of  Otology,  New  York  City. 

Arch,  de  parasitol Archives  de  parasilologie,  Paris. . 


ABBREVIATIONS  FOR  MEDICAL  JOURNALS    1 21 

Arch.  Pediat Archives  of  Pediatrics,  New  York  City. 

Arch,  de  physiol.   norm,  et 

path Archives  de  physiologic  normale  et  pathol- 

ogique.  Paris. 
Arch.  Radiol.  and  Electroth. Archives  of  Radiology   and  Electrotherapy, 

London. 

Arch.  Roentg.  Ray Archjves  of  the  Roentgen  Ray,  London. 

Arch.  d.  sc.  biol Archives  des  sciences  biplogique,  Petrograd. 

Arch.  Surg .  Archives  of  Surgery,  Chicago. 

Arch.  din.  ital Archivio  clinico  italiano,  Roma. 

Arch,  di  farmacol.  sper Archivio   di   farmacologia   e.    scienze    affini, 

Roma. 
Arch,    internaz.    di    med.    e 

chir Archivio   internazionalc   di   medicina  e   chi- 

rurgia,  Napoli. 
Arch.  ital.  di  otol.,  rinol,  e 

laringol Archivio    italiano   di    otologia,    rinologia,    e 

laringologia,  Napoli. 

Arch,  per  le  sc.  med Archivio  per  le  scienze  mediche,  Torino. 

Arch,  brasil.  de  psychiat. ..  .Archives    brasileiros   de    psychiatria,    neuro- 

logia,  e  sciencias  afines,  Rio  de  Janeiro. 

Arch,  espan.  de  pediat Archives  espanoles  de  pediatria,  Madrid. 

Arizona  Med.  Jour Arizona  Medical  Journal,  Phoenix. 

Atlanta  Jour.-Rec.  Med Atlanta  Journal-Record  of  Medicine,  Atlanta, 

Georgia. 

Atti  d.  r.  Accad.  d.  Lincei  .  .Atti  della  reale  Accademia  dei  Lincei,  Roma. 
Attualita  med Attualita    medica,    organo    scientifico    e    di 

classe  dell'  Associazione  sanitaria  milanese, 

Milano. 
Australas.  Med.  Gaz Australasian  Medical  Gazette,  Sydney. 

Balneol.  Centralztg Balneologische  Centralzeitung,  Berlin. 

Beitr.    z.    chem.    Phys.    u. 
Path Beitrage    zur    chemischen    Physiologic    und 

Pathologic,    Braunschweig.       (Merged    in 

Biochemische  Zeitschrift.) 

Beitr.  z.  exper.  Therap Beitrage  zur  experimentellen  Therapie,  Berlin. 

Beitr.  z.  Geburtsh.  u.  Gynak .  Beitrage  zur  Geburtshttlfe  und  Gynakologie, 

Berlin. 
Beitr.  z.  Klin.  d.  Tuberk Beitrage  zur  Klinik  der  Tuberkulose.  Wiirz- 

burg. 

Beitr.  z.  klin.  Chir Beitrage  zur  klinischen  Chirurgie,  Tubingen. 

Beitr.   z.   path.  Anat.   u.  z. 
allg.  Path Beitrage  zur  pathologischen  Anatomic   und 

zur  allgemeinen  Pathologie,  Jena. 
Ber.  d.  deutsch.  chem.  Ge- 

sellsch Berichte   der  deutschen   chemischen   Gesell- 

schaft,  Berlin. 

Ber.  d.  deutsch.  pharm.  Ge- 
sellsch Berichte    der    deutschen    pharmaceutischen 

Gesellschaft,  Berlin. 
Ber.  u.  d.  ges.  Physiol Berichte  iiber  die  gesamte  Physiologic  (Neue 

Folge  des  Zentralblatts  fUr  Biochemie  und 

Biophysik),  Berlin. 
Ber.     d.     Gsndhtsrath.     in 
Zurich Berichte  des  Gesundheitsrathes  an  die  hohe 

Regierung  in  Zurich,  Ztirich. 
Berl.  Klinik Berliner  Klinik,  Berlin. 


122          THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

Berl.  klin.  Wchnschn. Berliner  klinische  Wochenschrift,  Berlin. 

Bibliot.    d.    ges.    med.    Wis- 
sensch Bibliothek     der     gesammten     medicinischen 

Wissenschaften,  Wien  und  Leipzig. 

Bibliot.  f .  Laeger Bibliothek  fiir  Laeger,  Kjobenhavn. 

Biochem.  Bull Biochemical  Bulletin,  New  York  City. 

Biochem.  Ztschr Biochemische  Zeitschrift,  Berlin. 

Biol.  Bull Biological    Bulletin,    Woods    Hole,    Massa- 
chusetts. 

Bl.  f.  Gsndhtspflg Blatter  fur  Gesundheitspflege,  Zurich. 

Bol.  d.  Cons.  sup.  de  salub .  Boletin  del  Consejo  superior  de  salubridad, 

Mexico. 

Bol.  d.  inst.  patol Boletin  del  institute  patologico,  Mexico. 

Bol.  de  med.  y  cirug Boletin  de  medicina  y  cirugia,  Madrid. 

Boll.  chim.  farm Bolletino  chimico  farmaceutico,  Milano. 

Boston     Med.     and     Surg. 

Jour Boston  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  Boston. 

Brain Brain:  A  Journal  of  Neurology,  London. 

Brauer's  Beitr Brauer's  Beitrage:  See  Beitrage  zur  Klinik  der 

Tuberkulose,  Wurzburg. 

Brazil-med Brazil-medico,  Rio  de  Janeiro. 

Bristol  Med.-Chir.  Jour Bristol  Medico-Chirurgical  Journal,  Bristol. 

Brit,  and  Colon.  Druggist .  .  .  British  and  Colonial  Druggist,  London. 
Brit.  Jour.  Child.  Dis British     Journal     of     Children's     Diseases, 

London. 

Brit.  Jour.  Dent.  Sc. , British  Journal  of  Dental  Science,  London. 

Brit.  Jour.  Dermat.  Syph.  .  .  British  Journal  of  Dermatology  and  Syphilis, 

London. 
Brit.  Jour.  Exper.  Path British  Journal  of  Experimental  Pathology, 

London  and  Toronto. 

Brit.  Jour.  Ophth British  Journal  of  Ophthalmology,  London. 

Brit.  Jour.  Surg British  Journal  of  Surgery,  Bristol. 

Brit.  Jour.  Tuberc British  Journal  of  Tuberculosis,  London. 

Brit.  Med.  Jour British  Medical  Journal,  London. 

Bruns'  Beitr Bruns'  Beitrage:     See  Beitrage  zur  klinische 

Chirurgie,  Tubingen. 
Budapest!  orv.  ujsag Budapest!   orvosi   jusag    (Budapest   Medical 

News),  Budapest. 

Buffalo  Med.  Jour Buffalo  Medical  Journal,  Buffalo. 

Bull,  de  1'Acad.  de  med Bulletin  de  1'Academie  de  medecine,  Paris. 

Bull,     de    1'Acad.     roy.     de 
Belgique Bulletin  de  1'Academie  royals  des  sciences,  des 

lettres    et    des     beaux-arts    de    Belgique, 

Bruxelles. 

Bull.  Am.  Acad.  Med Bulletin  of  the  American  Academy  of  Medi- 
cine, Easton,  Pennsylvania. 
Bull,    de    1'Assn.    franc-    P- 
1'etude  du  cancer Bulletin     de     1 'Association     francaise     pour 

1'etude  du  cancer,  Paris. 
Bull.  El  Paso  Co.  Med.  Soc. .  Bulletin  of  El  Paso  County  Medical  Society,  El 

Paso,  Texas. 
Bull.  gen.  de  therap. ..'.....  Bulletin   general  de   th6rapeutique   me'dicale 

et  chirurgicale,  Paris. 
Bull.  Hyg. Lab., U.S.  P.  H.S., Bulletin  Hygienic  Laboratory,  United  States 

Public  Health  Service,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Bull,  de  1'Inst.  Pasteur Bulletin  de  1'Institut  Pasteur,  Paris. 

Bull.  Johns  Hopkins  Hosp. .  .  Bulletin    of    the    Johns    Hopkins    Hospital, 

Baltimore. 


ABBREVIATIONS  FOR  MEDICAL  JOURNALS    123 

Bull.  Lying-in  Hosp Bulletin  of  the  Lying-in  Hospital  of  the  City 

of  New  York,  New  York  City. 
Bull.  Manila  Med.  Soc Bulletin    of    the    Manila    Medical    Society, 

Manila. 
Bull.  Med.  and  Chir.  Faculty, 

Maryland Bulletin    of    the    Medical    and    Chirurgical 

Faculty  of  Maryland,  Baltimore. 

Bull.  m6d Bulletin  medical,  Paris. 

Bull.  m6d.  de  Quebec Bulletin  m6dical  de  Quebec,  Quebec. 

Bull,  et  m£m.  Soc.  anat.  de 
Par Bulletin  et  me'moires  de  la  Societe  anatomique 

de  Paris,  Paris. 
Bull,  et  mem.  Soc.  de  chir.  de 

Par Bulletin  et  me'moires  de  la  SociSte'  de  chirurgie 

de  Paris,  Paris. 
Bull.    off.  Soc.  franc-  d'elec- 
trother.  et  de  radiol Bulletin    officiel     de    la     Socie'te     francaise 

d'electrothfirapie  et  de  radiologie,  Paris. 
Bull,  et  m£m.  Soc.  med.  d. 

h6p.  de  Par Bulletin  et  m6moires  de  la  Soci6t6  medicale 

des  hdpitaux  de  Paris,  Paris. 
Bull,    et    mem.    Soc.    radiol. 

m£d.  de  France Bulletins    et    mfimoires    de    la    Soci6t6    de 

radiologie  medicale  de  France,  Paris. 
Bull.  Soc.  anat.  de  Par Bulletin  de  la  Societe  anatomique  de  Paris, 

Paris. 

Bull.  Soc.  beige  de  gynec.  et 
d'obst Bulletin  de  la  Soci6te  beige  de  gynecologic  et 

d'obst6trique,  Bruxelles. 
Bull.  Soc.  chim Bulletin  de  la  Societe  chimique  de  France, 

Paris. 

Bull.  Soc.  franc-  de  dermat. 
et  de  syph Bulletin  de  la  Soci6t6  francaise  de  dermato- 

logie  et  de  syphiligraphie,  Paris. 
Bull.  Soc.  de  path,  exot Bulletin  de  la  Societ6  de  pathologic  exotique, 

Paris. 
Bull.  Soc.  de  pediat.  de  Par .  .Bulletin  de  la  Society  de  pediatrie  de  Paris. 

Paris. 
Bull.  Soc.  de  pharm.  de  Par .  .  Bulletin  de  la  Societe  de  pharmacie  de  Paris, 

Paris. 
Bull.  Soc.  d.  sc.  d'Alger Bulletin  de  la  SocietS  des  sciences  physiques, 

naturelles,     et     climatologiques     d'Alger, 

Alger. 

Bull.  d.  trav.  Soc.  de  pharm. 

de  Bordeaux Bulletin  des  travaux  de  la  Societe  de  phar- 
macie de  Bordeaux,  Bordeaux. 

Caducee .Caduc6e:  Journal  de  chirurgie  et  de  medecine 

d'armee,  Paris. 

Calcutta  Med.  Jour Calcutta  Medical  Journal,  Calcutta. 

Calif.   Med.   and   Surg.    Re- 
porter   California    Medical   and    Surgical    Reporter, 

Los  Angeles. 
Calif.  State  Jour.  Med California   State  Journal   of   Medicine,   San 

Francisco. 
Can.  Jour.  Med.  and  Surg. .  .Canadian  Journal  of  Medicine  and  Surgery, 

Toronto. 


124          THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

Can.  Med.  Assn.  Jour Canadian      Medical      Association      Journal, 

Toronto. 
Can.  Pract.  and  Rev The    Canadian    Practitioner    and    Review, 

Toronto. 

Centralbl Centralblatt.    See  Zentralblatt. 

Centralbl.   f.   allg.    Path.   u. 

path.  Anat Centralblatt  filr  allgemeine   Pathologic  und 

pathologische  Anatomic,  Jena. 
Centralbl.  f .  Bakteriol Centralblatt    fur    Bakteriologie,     Parasiten- 

kunde  und  Infectionskrankheiten,  Jena. 
Centralbl.  f.  d.  Grenzgeb.  d. 

Med.  u.  Chir Centralblatt  fflr  die  Grenzgebiete  der  Medizin 

und  Chirurgie,  Jena. 
Centralbl.  f.  d.   Krankh.  d. 

Harn-  u.  Sex.-Org Centralblatt  fiir  die  Krankheiten  der  Harn- 

und  Sexual-Organe,  Leipzig. 
Centralbl.  f.  d.  med.  Wissen- 
sch Centralblatt  fiir  die   medicinischen  Wissen- 

schaften,  Berlin. 
Centralbl.  f.  Nervenh.  u.  Psy- 

chiat Centralblatt  fiir  Nervenheilkunde  und  Psy- 
chiatric, Coblenz  und  Leipzig. 
Centralbl.  f.  Stoffwechsel.  u. 
Verdauung?kr Centralblatt     fiir     Stoffwechsel-     und     Ver- 

dauungs-Krankheiten,  Gottingen. 

Charite-Ann Charite'-Annalen,  Berlin. 

Charlotte  Med.  Jour Charlotte  Medical  Journal,  Charlotte,  North 

Carolina. 

Chem.  Abstr Chemical  Abstracts,  Easton,  Pennsylvania. 

Chem.  News Chemical  News,  London. 

Chem.-Ztg Chemiker-Zeitung,  Gothen. 

Chem.  Centrbl Chemisches  Centralblatt,  Leipzig. 

Chicago  Med.  Recorder Chicago  Medical  Recorder,  Chicago. 

China  Med.  Jour China  Medical  Journal,  Shanghai. 

Cleveland  Med.  Jour Cleveland  Medical  Journal,  Cleveland. 

Cleveland    Med.    and    Surg. 
Reporter Cleveland   Medical   and   Surgical    Reporter, 

Cleveland. 

Clin.  Chir Clinica  chirurgica,  Milano. 

Clin.  Jour Clinical  Journal,  London. 

Clin.  mod Clinica  moderna,  Firenze. 

Clin.  ostet Clinica  ostetrica,  Roma. 

Colorado  Med Colorado  Medicine,  Denver. 

Colorado  Med.  Jour Colorado  Medical  Journal,  Denver. 

Columbus  Med.  Jour Columbus  Medical  Journal,  Columbus,  Ohio. 

Compt.  rend.  Acad.  roy.  de 

m6d.  de  Belg Compte-rendu    des    travaux    de    1' Academic 

royale  de  medecine  de  Belgique,  Bruxelles. 
Compt.  rend.  Acad.  d.  sc .  .  .  .Comptes  rendus  hebdomadaires  des  seances 

de  1' Academic  des  sciences,  Paris. 
Compt.  rend.  Soc.  de  biol.  .  .Comptes  rendus  des  stances  et  memoires  de  la 

Socieie1  de  biologic,  Paris. 
Cornell  Univ.  Med.  Bull.  ..  .Cornell    University    Medical    Bulletin,    New 

York  City. 
Cor.-Bl.  f.  schweiz.  Aerzte .  . .  Correspondenz-Blatt    fflr    schweizer    Aerzte, 

Basel. 

Critic  and  Guide Critic  and  Guide,  New  York  City. 

Cron.  m6d Cronica  medica,  Lima. 

Cron.  med.  mexicana Cr6nica  medica  mexicana,  Mexico. 


ABBREVIATIONS  FOR  MEDICAL  JOURNALS    125 

Delaware  State  Med.  Jour . .  .  Delaware  State  Medical  Journal.  Wilmington, 
Delaware. 

Dental  Cosmos Dental  Cosmos,  Philadelphia. 

Dental  Digest Dental  Digest,  Chicago. 

Dental  Items  Int Dental  Items  of  Interest,  New  York  City. 

Dental  Rec Dental  Record,  London. 

Dental  Rev Dental  Review,  Chicago. 

Dental  Sum Dental  Summary,  Toledo,  Ohio. 

Denver    Med.     Times    and 

Utah  Med.  Jour Denver   Medical   Times  and   Utah   Medical 

Journal,  Denver. 

Dermat.  Wchnschr Dermatologische  Wochenschrift,  Leipzig. 

Dermat.  Ztschr Dermatologische  Zeitschrift,  Berlin. 

Detroit  Med.  Jour Detroit  Medical  Journal,  Detroit. 

Deutsche  Klinik Deutsche  Klinik,  Berlin  und  Wien. 

Dcutsch  med.  Wchnschr ....  Deutsche  medizinische  Wochenschrift,  Leip- 
zig und  Berlin. 

Deutsch  mil.-arztl.  Ztschr.  .  .Deutsche  militair-arztliche  Zeitschrift,  Berlin. 

Deutsch.  Arch.  f.  klin.  Med  .  Deutsches  Archiv  fflr  klinische  Medizin, 
Leipzig. 

Deutsch.  Ztschr.  f.  Chir.  . .  .Deutsche  Zeitschrift  fur  Chirurgie,  Leipzig. 

Deutsch.  Ztschr.  f.  Nervenh  .  Deutsche  Zeitschrift  ftir  Nervenheilkunde. 
Leipzig. 

Dietet.  and  Hyg.  Gaz Dietetic  and   Hygienic  Gazette,   New  York 

City. 

Dingler's  polytech.  Jour ....  Dingjer's  poly techniches  Journal,  Stuttgart. 

Dominion  Dent.  Jour Dominion  Dental  Journal,  Toronto. 

Dominion  Med.  Month Dominion  Medical  Monthly,  Toronto. 

Drug.  Circ Druggist's  Circular.  New  York  City. 

Dublin  Jour.  Med.  Sc Dublin  Journal  of  Medical  Science,  Dublin. 

ficho  mid.  du  nord Echo  medical  du  nord,  Lille. 

Eclect.  Med.  Jour Eclectic  Medical  Journal,  Cincinnati. 

Edect.  Rev Eclectic  Review.  New  York  City. 

Edinburgh  Med.  Jour Edinburgh  Medical  Journal,  Edinburgh. 

Endocrinology Endocrinology,  Los  Angeles. 

Epilepsia Epilepsia,  Hamburg. 

Ergebn.  d.  allg.  Path.  u.  Anat. 

Ergebnisse    der    allgemeine    Pathologic    und 
Anatomic,  Wiesbaden. 

Ergebn.  d.  Chir.  u.  Orth.  ..  .Ergebnisse  der  Chirurgie  und  Orthopadie, 
Berlin. 

Ergebn.   d.    Hyg.    Bak.    Im- 

munitsf.  u.  exp.  Therap.  .  .Ergebnisse  der  Hygiene.  Bakteriologie,  Im- 
munitatsforschung, und  experimentellen 
Therapie,  Berlin. 

Ergebn.  d.  Immunitatsf Ergebnisse  der  Immunitatsforschung.  con- 
tinued as  Ergebnisse  der  Hygiene,  Bakteri- 
ologie, Immunitatsforschung,  und  experi- 
mentellen Therapie,  Berlin. 

Ergebn.    d.    inn.    Med.     u. 

Kinderh Ergebnisse  der  innere  Medizin  und  Kinder- 

heilkunde,  Berlin. 

Folia  hsematol Folia  haematologica.    Internationales  Zentral- 

organ    ftir     Blut-     und     Serumforschung. 
Berlin. 


126          THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

Folia  serolog Folia  serolpgica.     II  (serologischer)  Teil  der 

Internationalen  Zentralorgan  fur  Blut-  und 
Serumforschung,  Leipzig. 

Folia  urolog Folia  urologica.     Internationales  Archiv  fur 

die  Krankheiten  der  Harnorgane,  Leipzig. 

Forh.      Svens.      Lak.-Sallsk. 

Sammank FQrhandlingar  vid  Svenska  Lakare-Sallskapets 

Sammankomster,  Stockholm. 

Fortschr.  a.  d.  Geb.  d.  Ront- 

genstrahlen Fortschritte  auf  dem  Gebiete  der   Rontgen- 

strahlen,  Hamburg. 

Fortschr.  de  Med Fortschritte  der  Medizin,  Berlin. 

Fort  Wayne  Med.  Jour.-Mag.  Fort     Wayne     Medical     Journal-Magazine. 
Fort  Wayne,  Indiana. 

Frankfurter  Ztschr.  f .  Path. .  Frankfurter  Zeitschrift  fur  Pathologic,  Wies- 
baden. 

Gac.  med Gaceta  medica,  Mexico. 

Gaz.  lek Gazeta  lekarska,  Warszawa. 

Gaz.  med.  da  Bahia Gazeta  medica  da  Bahia,  Bahia. 

Gaz.  hebd.  de  med Gazette    hebdomadaire    de    medecine    et    de 

chirurgie,  Paris. 
Gaz.   hebd.   d.   sc.    med.   de 

Bordeaux Gazette  hebdomadaire  des  sciences  m£dicales 

de  Bordeaux. 
Gaz.  d.  h6p Gazette  des  h6pitaux  civils  et  militaires  (La 

Lancette  franchise),  Paris. 

Gaz.  d.  mal.  infant Gazette  des  maladies  inf antiles,  Paris. 

Gaz.  med.  beige Gazette  me'dicale  beige,  Lie'ge. 

Gaz.  med.  de  Par Gazette  medicale  de  Paris,  Paris. 

Gazz.  chim.  Ital Gazzetta  chimica  Italiana,  Roma. 

Gazz.  d.  osp Gazzetta    degli    ospedali    e    delle    diniche, 

Milano. 

Gazz.  med Gazzetta  medica,  Milano. 

Gazz.  med.  ital Gazzetta  medica  italiana,  Torino. 

Gazz.  med.  Iqmb Gazzetta  medica  lombarda,  Milano. 

Gazz.  med.  sicil Gazzetta  medica  siciliana.     Giornale  pratico 

di  medicina,  chirurgia,  igiene  e  farmacia; 

per    medici,    ufficiali    sanitari,    farmacisti, 

Catania. 

Gazz.  med.  di  Torino Gazzetta  medica  di  Torino,  Torino. 

Geneesk.  Tijdschr.  v.  Belgie.Geneeskundig  Tijdschrift  voor   Belgie,  Ant- 

werpen. 

Ginecologia Ginecologia,  Firenze. 

Gior.  d.  r.  Accad.  di  med.  di 

Torino Giornale  della  reale  Accademia  di  medicina  di 

Torino,  Torino. 
Gior.  ital.  d.  mal.  ven Giornale   italiano   delle    malattie    veneree    e 

della  pellp,  Milano. 

Gior.  di  med.  mil Giornale  di  medicina  militare,  Roma. 

Gior.  d.  r.  Soc.  naz.  vet Giornale  della  reale  Societa  nazionale  veteri- 

naria,  Torino. 

Glasgow  Med.  Jour Glasgow  Medical  Journal,  Glasgow. 

Good  Health Good  Health,  Battle  Creek,  Michigan. 

Grace  Hosp.  Bull *.  .Grace  Hospital  Bulletin,  Detroit. 

Graefe's  Arch Graefe's   Archiv:    See   Archiv   fiir    Ophthal- 

mologie,  Leipzig. 


127 

Grdce  m£d Grdce  m6dicale,  Athene,  Grice.  French 

section  of  Istrik6  Proodos. 

Guy's  Hosp.  Gaz Guy's  Hospital  Gazette:  a  Student's  Journal 

of  Hospital  News,  Medicine,  and  Surgery, 
London. 

Guy's  Hosp.  Rep Guy's  Hospital  Reports,  London. 

Gynaekol.  Helvet Gynaekologia  Helvetica,  GenSve. 

Gynak.  Rundschau Gynakologische  Rundschau,  Berlin  und  Wien. 

Gy6gyaszat Gy6gyaszat,  Budapest. 

Gy6gysze'reszi  hetil Gydgysze'reszi  hetilap,  Budapest. 

Haematologica Haematologica:  Archivio  italiano  di  ematolo- 

gia  e  sierologia,  Napoli. 

Heart Heart:  A  Journal  for  the  Study  of  the  Circu- 
lation, London. 

Hildebrand's  Jahresb Hildebrand's  Jahresberichte:  See  Jahres- 
berichte Uber  die  Fortschritte  auf  dem 
Gebiete  der  Chirurgie,  Wiesbaden. 

Hofmeister's  Beitr Hofmeister's  Beitrage:  See  Beitrage  zur 

cheraischen.  Physiologic  und  Pathologic, 
Braunschweig. 

Hoppe-Seyler's  Ztschr Hoppe-Seyler's  Zeitschrift:  See  Zeitschrift 

ftir  physiologische  Chemie,  Strassburg. 

Hospital The  Hospital,  London. 

Hospitalstidende Hospitalstidende,  Kjobenhavn. 

Hosp.  Management Hospital  Management.  Chicago. 

Hosp.  Prog Hospital  Progress,  Milwaukee.  Wisconsin. 

Hot  Springs  Med.  Jour Hot  Springs  Medical  Journal,  Hot  Springs, 

Arkansas. 

Hufeland's  Jour Hufeland's  Journal:  See  Journal  der  practis- 

chen  Arzneykunde  und  Wundarzneykunst, 
Jena  und  Berlin. 

Hygea Hygea,  Karlsruhe. 

Hygiea Hygiea,  Stockholm. 

Hyg.  g6n.  et  appliq Hygie'ne  generale  et  appliquee,  Paris. 

Hygiene Hygiene,  London. 

Hyg.  mod Hygiene  moderne,  Paris. 

Hyg.  Bl Hygienische  Blatter,  Berlin. 

Hyg.  Rundschau Hygienische  Rundschau,  Berlin. 

latrike  proodos Intrike  proodos,  Athens,  Greece:    See  Grece 

M&iicale. 

Illinois  Biol.  Monog Illinois  Biological  Monographs,  Urbana. 

Illinois  Med.  Jour Illinois  Medical  Journal,  Chicago. 

Incurabili Incurabili,  Napoli. 

Indian  Jour.  Med.  Res Indian  Journal  of  Medical  Research,  Calcutta. 

Indian  Med.  Gaz Indian  Medical  Gazette,  Calcutta. 

Indian  Med.  Rec Indian  Medical  Record,  Calcutta. 

Indiana  Med.  Jour Indiana  Medical  Journal,  Indianapolis. 

Intercolonial    Med.    Jour. 

Australas Intercolonial  Medical  Journal  of  Australasia, 

Melbourne. 
Internal.   Assn.    Med.   Mus. 

Bull The    International    Association    of    Medical 

Museums  Bulletins,  Ann  Arbor,  Michigan. 
Internal.  Centralbl.  f.  d.  ges. 

Tuberk.-Forsch Internationales  Centralblatt  fur  die  gesamt* 

Tuberkulose-Fcrschung,  Wurzburg. 


128          THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

Internal.  Clin International  Clinics,  Philadelphia. 

Internat.  Dent.  Jour International    Dental    Journal,    New    York 

City  and  Philadelphia. 
Internat.  Monatschr.  f.  Anat. 

u.  Phys Internationale    Monatsschrift   fur   Anatomic 

und  Physiologic,  Leipzig. 
Internat.  Jour.  Orthodontia.  International    Journal    of    Orthodontia    and 

Oral  Surgery,  St.  Louis. 
Internat.  Jour.  Surg International  Journal  of  Surgery.  New  York 

City. 

Interstate  Med.  Jour Interstate  Medical  Journal,  St.  Louis. 

Italia  san Italia  sanitaria,  Milano. 

Jahrb.  f .  Kinderh Jahrbuch  fur  Kinderheilkunde  und  physische 

Erziehung,  Berlin. 

Jahrb.  d.  prakt.  Med Jahrbuch  der  praktischen  Medizin,  Berlin. 

Jahresb.  ii.  d.  Ergebn.  d.  Im- 

munitatsforschung Jahresbericht  liber  die   Ergebnisse   der   Im- 

munitatsforschung,  Stuttgart. 
Jahresb.   U.   d.   Fortschs.   d. 
Anat.       u.       Entwcklngs. 

gesch Jahresberichte    fiber    die     Fortschritte     der 

Anatoraie    und     Entwickelungsgeschichte, 
Jena. 
Jahresb.   ii.   d.   Fortschr.   d. 

Chem Jahresbericht    liber     die     Fortschritte     der 

Chemie    und    verwandler    Theile    anderer 
Wissenschaften,  Braunschweig. 
Jahresb.  ii.  d.  Fortschr.  a.  d. 

Geb.  d.  Chir Jahresbericht  liber  die  Fortschritte  auf  dem 

Gebiete  der  Chirurgie,  Wiesbaden. 
Jahresb.  ii.   d.   Fortschr.   d. 

ges.  Med Jahresbericht     liber     die     Fortschritte     der 

gesammten  Medicin,  Erlangen. 
Jahresb.  ti.   d.   Fortschr.   d. 

Thierchem Jahresbericht     liber     die     Fortschritte     der 

Thierchemie,  Wiesbaden. 
Jahresb.   ii.   d.   Leistung.   u. 
Fortschr.    i.    d.    Anat.    u. 

Physiol Jahresbericht  iiber  die  Leistungen  und  Fort- 
schritte in  der  Anatomic  und  Physiologic, 
Berlin. 
Jahresb.   u.   d.   Leistung.   u. 

Fortschr.  i.  d.  ges.  med ....  Jahresbericht  iiber  die  Leistungen  und  Fort- 
schritte in  der  gesammten  Medizin  (Fort- 
setzung     von     Virchow's     Jahresbericht), 
Berlin. 
Jahresb.  d.  schles.  Gesellsch. 

f.  vaterl.  Kult Jahresbericht    der    schlesischen    Gesellschaft 

fiir  vaterlandische  Kultur,  Breslau. 

Janus Janus,  Leyden. 

Johns  Hopkins  Hosp.  Rep.  .  .Johns  Hopkins  Hospital  Reports,  Baltimore. 

Jour.  Abnorm.  Psychol Journal  of  Abnormal  Psychology,  Boston. 

Jour.  Advanc.  Therap Journal  of  Advanced  Therapeutics,  New  York 

City. 

Jour.  Agr.  Res Journal  of  Agricultural  Research,  Washing- 
ton, D.  C. 


ABBREVIATIONS  FOR  MEDICAL  JOURNALS    129 

Jour.  Am.  Chem.  Soc Journal  of  the  American  Chemical  Society. 

Easton.  Pennsylvania. 

Jour.  Am.  Med.  Assn Journal  of  the  American  Medical  Association, 

Chicago. 

Jour.  Am.  Pharm.  Assn Journal    of    the    American    Pharmaceutical 

Association,  Columbus,  Ohio. 

Jour.  Am.  Pub.  Health  Assn .  Journal    of    the    American    Public    Health 
Association,  Columbus,  Ohio. 

Jour.   Am.   Soc.   for   Psych. 

Research Journal  of  the  American  Society  for  Psychical 

Research,  New  York  City. 

Jour,    de    1'anat.    et    de    la 

physiol Journal  de  1'anatomie  et  de  la  physiologie 

normales  et  pathologiques  de  1'homme  et 
des  animaux,  Paris. 

Jour.  Anat.  and  Physiol ....  Journal  of  Anatomy  and  Physiology,  London. 

Jour.  Arkansas  Med.  Soc ....  Journal   of   the   Arkansas    Medical   Society, 
Little  Rock. 

Jour.  Bacteriol Journal  of  Bacteriology,  Baltimore. 

Jour.  Biol.  Chem Journal  of  Biological  Chemistry,  New  York 

City. 

Jour.  Boston  Soc.  Med.  Sc.  .Journal  of  the    Boston   Society   of   Medical 
Sciences,  Boston. 

Jour.  Cancer  Res Journal  of  Cancer  Research,  Baltimore. 

Jour.  Chem.  Soc.  London.  .  .Journal  of  the  Chemical  Society  of  London, 
London. 

Jour,  de  chir Journal  de  chirurgie,  Paris. 

Jour.  d.  Chir.  u.  Augenh..  .  .Journal  der  Chirurgie  und  Augenheilkunde, 
Berlin. 

Jour.  Comp.  Neurol Journal   of   Comparative   Neurology,    Phila- 
delphia. 

Jour.      Comp.      Path,     and 

Therap Journal     of     Comparative     Pathology     and 

Therapeutics,  Edinburgh  and  London. 

Jour.  Cutan.  Dis Journal  of   Cutaneous  Diseases,   New  York 

City. 

Jour.  Dent.  Res Journal  of  Dental  Research,  New  York  City. 

Jour.  Exper.  Med Journal    of    Experimental    Medicine,     New 

York  City. 

Jour.  Exper.  Zool Journal    of    Experimental    Zoology,     Phila- 
delphia. 

Jour.  Eye,  Ear,  and  Throat 

Dis .Journal  of  Eye,  Ear,  and  Throat  Diseases, 

Baltimore. 

Jour.  Florida  Med.  Assn Journal  of  the  Florida  Medical  Association, 

Jacksonville. 

Jpur.  Gen.  Physiol Journal  of  General  Physiology,  Baltimore. 

Jour.  Hyg Journal  of  Hygiene,  London. 

Jour.  Immunol Journal  of  Immunology,  Baltimore. 

Jour.    Indiana    State    Med. 

Assn Journal  of  the  Indiana  State  Medical  Associa- 
tion, Fort  Wayne. 

Jour.     Indust.    and     Engin. 

Chem Journal  of  Industrial  and  Engineering  Chem- 
istry, Easton,  Pennsylvania. 

Jour.  Indust.  Hyg Journal  of  Industrial  Hygiene,  Boston. 

Jour.  Inebr Journal  of  Inebriety,  Boston. 

Jour.  Infect.  Dis Journal  of  Infectious  Diseases,  Chicago. 

9 


130          THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

J  our.  Iowa  State  Med.  Soc . . .  Journal  of  the  Iowa  State  Medical  Society, 

Des  Moines. 
Jour.  Kansas  Med.  Soc Journal    of    the    Kansas    Medical    Society, 

Columbus. 
Jour.  f.  Kinderkr Journal   filr  Kinderkrankheiten,    Berlin  und 

Erlangen. 
Jour.  Lab.  and  Clin.  Med. .  .Journal  of  Laboratory  and  Clinical  Medicine, 

St.  Louis. 

Journal-Lancet Journal-Lancet,  Minneapolis. 

Jour.  Laryngol.,  Rhinol.,  and 

Otol Journal    of    Laryngology,     Rhinology,    and 

Otology,  London. 
Jour.  Maine  Med.  Assn Journal  of  the  Maine  Medical  Association, 

Portland,  Maine. 

Jour,  de  med.  de  Bordeaux .  .  Journal  de  medecine  de  Bordeaux,  Bordeaux. 
Jour,  de  med.,  de  chir.,  et  de 

pharmacol Journal    de    m6decine,    de    chirurgie,    et    de 

pharmacologie,  Bruxelle?. 
Jour,  de  med.  et  de  chir.  prat  .Journal  de  medecine  et  de  chirurgie  pratiques, 

Paris. 

Jour,  de  med.  de  Par Journal  de  medecine  de  Paris,  Paris. 

Jour.  Med.  Assn.  Georgia.  .  .Journal  of  the  Medical  Association  of  Georgia, 

Augusta. 

Jour.  Med.  Res Journal  of  Medical  Research,  Boston. 

Jour.  Med.  Soc.  New  Jersey. .  Journal    of    the    Medical    Society    of    New 

Jersey,  Orange. 
Jour.  Ment.  Path Journal    of   Mental    Pathology,    New    York 

City. 
Jour.  Mich.  State  Med.  Soc. Journal    of    the    Michigan    State    Medical 

-  Society,  Detroit* 
Jour.  Minn.  Med.  Assn Journal    of    the    Minnesota    State    Medical 

Association,     and     Northwestern    Lancet, 

Minneapolis. 
Jour.    Missouri    State    Med. 

Assn Journal  of  the  Missouri  State  Medical  Asso- 
ciation, St.  Louis. 

Jour.  Morphol Journal  of  Morphology,  Philadelphia. 

Jour.  Nat.  Dent.  Assn Journal  of  the  National  Dental  Association, 

Chicago. 
Jour.  Nerv.  and  Ment.  Dis. .  .Journal   of   Nervous   and    Mental    Diseases, 

New  York  City. 

Jour,  de  neurol.  et  d'hypnol . .  Journal  de  neurologie  et  d'hypnologie,  Paris. 
Jour.  New  Mexico  Med.  Soc.  Journal  of  the  New  Mexico  Medical  Society, 

Albuquerque. 
Jour.  Obst.  and  Gynec.  Brit. 

Emp Journal  of  Obstetrics  and  Gynecology  of  the 

British  Empire,  London. 
Jour.  Oklahoma  State  Med. 

Assn Journal    of    the    Oklahoma    State    Medical 

Association,  Muskogee. 
Jour.  Ophth.  and  Oto-Laryn- 

gol Journal   of  Ophthalmology   and   Oto- Laryn- 
gology, Chicago. 
Jour.  Orthop.  Surg Journal    of    Orthopaedic    Surgery,    Lincoln, 

Nebraska. 
Jour.  Outdour  Life Journal  of  the  Outdoor  Life,  Trudeau,  New 

York. 
Jour.  Parasitol Journal  of  Parasitology,  Urbana,  Illinois. 


ABBREVIATIONS  FOR  MEDICAL  JOURNALS    131 

Jour.  Path,  and  Bacteriol .  .  .  Journal     of     Pathology     and     Bacteriology, 
Edinburgh  and  London. 

Jour,  de  pharm.  et  de  chim. .  .Journal  de  pharmacie  et  de  chimie.  Paris. 

Jour.  Pharmacol.  and  Exper. 

Therap Journal  of  Pharmacology  and  Experimental 

Therapeutics,  Baltimore. 

Jour,  de  physiol.  exper Journal     de     physiologic    exp£rimentale     et 

pathologique,  Paris. 

Jour,  de  physiol.  et  de  path. 

gen Journal    de    physiologic    et    de    pathologic 

generate,  Paris. 

Jour.  Physiol Journal  of  Physiology.London  and  Cambridge. 

Jour.    d.    piart.    Arznk.    u. 

Wundarznk Journal    der    practischen    Arzneykr.nde    und 

Wtindarzneykunst,  Jena  und  Berlin. 

Jour.  f.  nrakt.  Chem Journal  fttr  praktische  Chemie,  Leipzig. 

Jour,   de  psychol.   norm,   et 

path Journal   de    psychologic    normale   et   patho- 
logique, Paris. 

Jour.  Rad.  et  d'electrol Journal  de  Radiologie  et  d'electrologie.  Paris. 

Jour.  Radiol Journal  of  Radiology,  Omaha. 

Jour.  Roy.  Army  Med.  Corps.  Journal  of  the  Royal  Army  Medical  Corps, 
London. 

Jour.  Roy.  Micr.  Soc Journal  of  the  Royal  Microscopical  Society, 

London. 

Jour.  Roy.  Nav.  Med.  Serv .  Journal  of  the  Royal  Naval  Medical  Service, 
London. 

Jour.  d.  sc.  m6d.  de  Lille Journal  des  sciences  me'dicales  de  Lille,  Lille. 

Jour.  Soc.  Chem.  Ind Journal  of  the  Society  of  Chemical  Industry, 

London. 

Jour.  Sociol.  Med Journal     of     Sociologic     Medicine,     Easton, 

Pennsylvania. 

Jour.  S.  Caroljna  Med.  Assn  .  Journal  of  the  South  Carolina  Medical  Asso- 
ciation, Greenville. 

Jour.  State  Med Journal  of  State  Medicine,  London. 

Jour.     Surg.,     Gynec.,     and 

Obst .  .  .  f Journal    of   Surgery,    Gynecology,    and    Ob- 
stetrics, New  York  City. 

Jour.  Tennessee  State  Med. 

Assn Journal    of    the    Tennessee    State    Medical 

Association,  Nashville. 

Jour.  Trop.  Med. . . Journal  of  Tropical  Medicine  and  Hygiene. 

London. 

Jour,  d'urol.  med.etchir.  ..  .Journal  d'urologie  medicale  et  chirurgicale. 
Paris:  formerly  Annales  des  maladies  des 
organes  genito-urinaires. 

Jour.  Urol Journal  of  Urology,  Baltimore. 

Kansas    City    Med.    Index- 
Lancet Kansas  City  Medical  Index- Lancet,  Kansas 

City. 

Kansas  City  Med.  Rec Kansas  City  Medical  Record,  Kansas  City. 

Kentucky  Med.  Jour Kentucky  Medical  Journal,  Bowling  Green. 

Kitasato  Arch.  Exper.  Med.  .Kitasato,  Archives  of  Experimental  Medicine, 

Tokio. 

Klin.  Beitr.  z.  Gynak Klinische  Beitrage  zur  Gynakologie,  Breslau. 

Klin.  Monatsbl.  f.  Augenh .  .  Klinische  Monatsblatter  fur  Augenheilkunde. 

Stuttgart. 


132 

Klin.-therap.  Wchnschr Klinisch-therapeutische  Wochenschrift,  Wien. 

Knapp's  Arch Knapp's  Archiv:    See  Archiv  fiir  Augenheil- 

kunde,  Wiesbaden. 
Kolloidchem.  Beih Kolloidchemische     Beihefte,     Dresden     und 

Leipzig. 
Kolloid-Ztschr Kolloid-Zeitschrift,  Dresden  und  Leipzig. 

Lancet Lancet,  London. 

Lancet-Clinic Lancet-Clinic,  Cincinnati. 

Langenbeck's  Arch Langenbeck's  Archiv:    See  Archiv  fiir  klinis- 

che  Chirurgie,  Berlin. 

Lancet te  franc Lancet te  francaise:   See  Gazette  des  h6pitaux 

civils  et  militaires,  Paris. 

Leucocyte Leucocyte,  Detroit. 

Liebig's  Ann Liebig's  Annalen:    See  Annalen  der  Chemie, 

Leipzig. 

Liverpool  Med.-Chir.  Jour. .  .Liverpool  Medico-Chirurgical  Journal,  Liver- 
pool. 

London  Med.  Rec London  Medical  Recorder,  London. 

Long  Island  Med.  Jour Long  Island  Medical  Journal,  Brooklyn. 

Louisville  Month.  Jour.  Med. 

and  Surg Louisville  Monthly  Journal  of  Medicine  and 

Surgery,  Louisville,  Kentucky. 

Lyon  chir Lyon  chirurgical,  Paris. 

Lyon  med Lyon  medical,  Lyon. 

Maly's  Jahresb Maly's  Jahresbericht:  See  Jahresbericht  iiber 

die  Fortschritte  der  Theirchemie,  Wies- 
baden. 

Marseille  med Marseille  me'dical,  Marseille. 

Maryland  Med.  Jour Maryland  Medical  Journal,  Baltimore. 

Massachusetts  Med.  Jour.  .  .Massachusetts  Medical  Journal,  Boston. 

Med.  mod Medecine  moderne,  Paris. 

Med.  Advance Medical  Advance,  Batavia,  Illinois. 

Med.  Brief Medical  Brief,  St.  Louis. 

Med.  Bull Medical  Bulletin,  Philadelphia. 

Med.  Chron Medical  Chronicle,  Manchester,  England. 

Med.  Clin.  Chicago Medical  Clinics  of  Chicago,  Philadelphia; 

continued  as  Medical  Clinics  of  North 
America. 

Med.  Clin.  N.  Amer Medical  Clinics  of  North  America,  Phila- 
delphia. 

Med.  Council Medical  Council,  Philadelphia. 

Med.  Era Now  combined  with  St.  Louis  Medical  Review 

under  the  title  of  Medical  Review,  St.  Louis. 

Med.  Exam,  and  Pract Medical  Examiner  and  Practitioner,  New  York 

City. 

Med.  Fortnightly Medical  Fortnightly,  St.  Louis. 

Med.  Gaz Medical  Gazette,  New  York  City. 

Med.  Herald : Medical  Herald,  St.  Joseph,  Missouri. 

Med.  Jour.  Australia Medical  Journal  of  Australia,  Sydney. 

Med.  Libr.  and  Hist.  Jour ...  Medical  Library  and  Historical  Journal, 
Brooklyn. 

Med.  Mag Medical  Magazine,  London. 

Med.  News Medical  News,  London. 

Med.  Notea  and  Queries....  Medical  Notes  and  Quenes,  Lancaster, 
Pennsylvania. 


ABBREVIATIONS  FOR  MEDICAL  JOURNALS    133 

Med.  Press  and  Circular.  . .  .Medical  Press  and  Circular,  London. 

Med.  Rec Medical  Record,  New  York  City. 

Med.  Recorder Medical  Recorder,  Shreyeport,  Louisiana. 

Med.  Rev.  of  Rev Medical  Review  of  Reviews,  New  York  City. 

Med.  Rev Medical    Review,    St.    Louis,    incorporating 

Medical  Era  and  St.  Louis  Medical  Review. 

Med.  Sentinel Medical  Sentinel,  Portland,  Oregon. 

Med.  Standard Medical  Standard,  Chicago. 

Med.  Summary Medical  Summar>'i  Philadelphia. 

Med.   and   Surg.   Rep.   City 

Hosp Medical  and  Surgical   Reports  of  the  City 

Hospital  of  the  City  of  Boston,  Boston. 

Med.  Times Medical  Times,  New  York  City. 

Med.  Times  and  Gaz Medical  Times  and  Gazette,  London. 

Med.  World Medical  World.  Philadelphia. 

Med.  nuova Medicina  nuova,  Roma. 

Medicine ...    Medicine,  Detroit. 

Med.  and  Surg Medicine  and  Surgery,  St.  Louis. 

Med.  Bl Medicinische  Blatter:   See  Wochenschrift  fUr 

die  gesammte  Heilkunde,  Wien. 

Med.  Monatschr Medicinische  Monatsschrift,  New  York  City. 

Med.  Cor.-Bl.  d.  wtirttemb. 

arztl.  Landesver Medicinisches  Correspondenzblatt  des  wtlrt- 

tembergischen     arztlichen     Landesvereins, 

Stuttgart. 

Med.  Rev Medicinsk  revue,  Bergen,  Norway. 

Med.-Chir.  Jour Medico-Chirurgical  Journal,  Philadelphia. 

Med. -Leg.  Jour Medico-Legal  Journal,  New  York 'City. 

Med.  Rev Medische  Revue,  Haarlem. 

Med.  Weekbl Medisch  Weekblad,  Amsterdam. 

Med.  Obozr Meditsinskoye  Obpzrienie,  Moscow. 

Med.  Klin Medizinische  Klinik,  Berlin. 

Mem.  Acad.  imp.  d.  sc.  de 

Petrograd MSmoires     de     1'Academie     imperiale     des 

sciences  de  Petrograd,  Petrograd. 
Mem.  r.  Accad.  d.  sc.  d.  1st. 

di  Bologna Memorie  della  reale  Accademia  delle  scienze 

dell'  Istituto  di  Bologna,  Bologna. 

Memphis  Med.  Month Memphis  Medical  Monthly,  Memphis,  Ten- 
nessee. 

Meyer  Bros.  Drug Meyer  Brothers'  Druggist,  St.  Louis. 

Midi  med Midi  me'dical,  Toulouse. 

Midland  Drug,  and  Pharm. 

Rev Midland   Druggist  and   Pharmaceutical   Re- 
view, Columbus,  Ohio. 

Militararzt Der  Militararzt,  Wien. 

Mil.  Surgeon Military  Surgeon,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Minn.  Med Minnesota  Medicine,  St.  Paul. 

Mississippi  Med.  Month.  . .  .Mississippi  Medical  Monthly,  Vicksburg. 
Mitt.  de.  deutsch.  Gesellsch. 
z.  Bekampf.  d.  Geschlecht- 
skr Mitteilungen  der  deutschen  Gesellschaft  zur 

Bekampfung   der   Geschlechtskrankheiten, 

Leipzig. 
Mitt.    d.    Gesellsch.    f.    inn. 

Med.  u.  Kinderh Mitteilungen    der    Gesellschaft    fur    innere 

Medizin    und    Kinderheilkunde    in    Wien. 

Wien. 


134          THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

Mitt.  a.  d.  Grenzgeb.  d.  Med. 

u.  Chir Mitteilungen    aus    den    Grenzgebieten    der 

Medizin  und  Chirurgie,  Jena. 
Mitt.  a.  d.  med.  Fakult.  d.  k. 

Univ.  zu  Tokyo Mitteilungen  aus  der  medizinischen  Fakultat 

der    kaiserlichen    Universitat    zu    Tokyo, 

Tokyo. 
Mobile  Med.  and  Surg.  Jour.  Mobile  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  Mobile. 

Mod.  Hosp Modern  Hospital,  Chicago. 

Mod.  Med Modern  Medicine,  Chicago. 

Mois  med.-chir Mois  medico-chirurgical,  Paris. 

Monatschr.  f.   Geburtsh.    u. 

Gynak Monatsschrift  fur  Geburtshiilfe   und   Gyna- 

kologie,  Berlin. 

Monatschr.  f.  Kinderh Monatsschrift  fur  Kinderheilkunde,  Leipzig. 

Monatschr.  f.  Ohrenh Monatsschrift  fur  Ohrenheilkunde,  Berlin. 

Monatschr.    f.    Psychiat.    u. 

Neurol Monatsschrift  fur  Psychiatric  und  Neurologic, 

Berlin. 
Monatschr.  f.  Unfallheilk.  .  .Monatsschrift   fiir   Unfallheilkunde    mit   be- 

sonderer    Beriicksichtigung   der   Mechano- 

therapie  und  der  Begutachtung  Unfallver- 

letzter,  Leipzig. 
Monatsh.  f.  prakt.  Dermal.  .Monatshefte    fiir    praktische    Dermatologie, 

Hamburg  und  Leipzig. 

Monde  med Monde  medical,  Paris. 

Month.  Cycl.  Pract.  Med.  .  .Monthly  Cyclopedia  of  Practical   Medicine, 

Philadelphia. 

Montreal  Med.  Jour Montreal  Medical  Journal,  Montreal. 

Morgagni Morgagni,  Milano. 

Milnchen.  med.  Wchnschr. .  .  Miinchener       medizinische       Wochenschrift, 

Miinchen. 

Nashville    Jour.    Med.    and 

Surg Nashville  Journal  of  Medicine  and  Surgery, 

Nashville,  Tennessee. 

Nebraska  State  Med.  Jour .  .  Nebraska  State  Medical  Journal,  Omaha. 
Nederl.  Tijdschr.  v.  Geneesk .  Nederlandsch  Tijdschrift  voor  Geneeskunde, 

Amsterdam. 
Nederl.  Tijdschr.  v.  Verlosk. 

en  Gynaec Nederlandsch  Tijdschrift  voor  Verloskunde  en 

Gynaecologie,  Haarlem. 
Neurol.  Centralbl Neurologisches     Centralblatt,      Berlin     und 

Leipzig. 
New  England  Med.  Month..  New  England   Medical   Monthly,   Danbury, 

Connecticut. 

New  Mexico  Med.  Jour New  Mexico  Medical  Journal,  Las  Cruces. 

New  Orleans  Med.  and  Surg. 

Jour New  Orleans  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal, 

New  Orleans. 

New  York  Med.  Jour New  York  Medical  Journal,  New  York  City. 

New  York  Med.  Jour,  and 

Obst.  Rev New  York  Medical  Journal  and  Obstetrical 

Review,  New  York  City. 

New  York  Med.  Press New  York  Medical  Press,  New  York  City. 

New  York  StateJ°ur  Med.  .New  York  State  Journal  of  Medicine,  New 

York  City. 


ABBREVIATIONS  FOR  MEDICAL  JOURNALS    135 

New  Zealand  Me-1   Jour .  . .   New  Zealand  Medical  Journal.  Dunedin. 
Nippon   Gankwa   Gakukwai 
Zasshi Nippon  Gankwa  Gakukwai  Zasshi  (Gazette 

of  the  Society  of  Oculists  of  Tapan),  Tokyo* 

Nord.  med.  Ark Nordiskt  mediciniskt  Arkiv,  Stockholm. 

Norsk  Mag.  f.  Laegevidensk .  Norsk  Magazin  for  Laegevidenskaben,  Kris- 

tiania. 
Norsk  Tidsskr.  f.  Mil.-Med.  Norsk  Tidsskrift  f6r  Militaermedicin.  Udgivet 

af  det  militaermedicinske  selskab  i  Kristi- 

ania.  Kriftiania. 

Northwest  Med Northwest  Medicine,  Seattle. 

Nourrison Nourrison.    Revue  d'hygi6ne  et  de  pathologic 

de  la  premiere  enfance,  Paris. 
Nouv.  iconog.  de  la  Salpet- 

riere Nouvelle    iconographie    de    la    ^alpetrtere, 

Paris. 

Obozr.  psikhiat.,  nevrol Obozrienige  psikhiatrii,  nevrologii  i  eksperi- 

mentalnoi  psikholqgii.  Petrograd. 

Obsh.-san.  obozr Obshtshestvenno-sanitarnoye  obozrienive,  Pe- 
trograd. 

Obstetrique L'Obstetrique:       See     Archives     mensuelles 

d'obst6trique  et  de  gynecologic,  Paris. 

Ohio  State  Med.  Jour Ohio  State  Medical  Journal,  Columbus. 

Old    Dominion    Jour.    Med. 

and  Surg Old    Dominion    Journal    of    Medicine    and 

Surgery,  Richmond,  Virginia. 

Ophth.  Lit Ophthalmic  Literature,  Denver. 

Ophth.  Rec Ophthalmic  Record,  Chicago. 

Ophthalmology Ophthalmology,  Seattle. 

Oral  Health Oral  Health,  Toronto. 

Oral  Hyg Oral  Hygiene,  Minneapolis. 

Orvosi  hetil Orvosi  hetilap,  Budapest. 

Osp.  maggiore Ospedale  maggiore,  Milano. 

Otchet  o  dleyateln.  khirurg. 

klin.  v.  Mosk Otchet  o  dleyatelnqsti  khirurgicheskol  kliniki 

Iverskql  Obshtshini  Syoster  Miloserdiyo  v. 
Moskvie,  Moskva. 

Oto-rhino-laringol.  internal.  .Oto-rhino-laryngologie  Internationale,  Lyons. 

Pacific  Med.  Jour Pacific  Medical  Journal,  San  Francisco. 

Parasitology Parasitology,  London. 

Paris  chirurg Paris  chirurgical;  publiant  les  comptes  rendus 

de  la  Societe  des  chirurgiens  de  Paris. 
Revue  mensuelle,  Paris. 

Paris  m€d Paris  medical,  Paris. 

Pathologica Pathologica.    Revista  quindicinale.    Geneva. 

Pediat.  espan Pediatria  espanpla;  revista  mensual  de  higiene, 

medicina  y  cirugia  infantil.  Madrid. 

Pediatria Pediatria,  Petrograd. 

Pediatrics Pediatrics,  New  York  and  London. 

Pennsylvania  Med.  Jour ....  Pennsylvania  Medical  Journal,  Athens. 

Pensiero  med Pensiero  medico,  Milano. 

Pest,  med.-chir.  Presse Pester  medizinische-chirurgische  Presse,  Buda- 
pest. 

Petrograd.  med.  Ztschr Petrograder  medizinische  Zeitschrift,  Petro- 
grad. 


136 


THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 


Pflflger's  Arch Pfliiger's  Archiv:    See  Archiv  ftir  die  gesamte 

Physiologie  des  menschen  und  der  Tiere, 

Bonn. 

Pharm.  Era Pharmaceutical  Era,  New  York  City. 

Pharm.  Jour Pharmaceutical  Journal,  London. 

Pharm.  Zentralhalle Pharmaceutische   Zentralhalle   ftir    Deutsch- 

land,  Berlin  und  Dresden. 
Pharm.    u.    therap.     Rund- 
schau   % Pharmakolqgische  und  therapeutische  Rund- 
schau, Wien. 

Pharm.  Ztg Pharmazeutische  Zeitung,  Berlin. 

Philadelphia  Med.  Jour Philadelphia  Medical  Journal,  Philadelphia. 

Philippine  Jour.  Sc Philippine  Journal  of  Science,  Manila. 

Philippine  Jour.  Trop.  Med . .  Philippine    Journal    of    Tropical    Medicine, 

Manila. 
Phil.  Tr.  Roy.  Soc.  London .  .  Philosophical    Transactions    of    the    Royal 

Society  of  London,  London. 

Physician  and  Surg Physician  and  Surgeon,  London. 

Physiol.  Abstr Physiological  Abstracts,  London. 

Plexus Plexus,  Batavia,  Illinois. 

Polyclinic Polyclinic,  London. 

Policlinico Policlinico,  Roma. 

Pop.  Sc.  Month Popular  Science  Monthly,  New  York  City. 

Post-Graduate Post-Graduate,  New  York  City. 

Practitioner,  Baltimore Practitioner,  Baltimore. 

Practitioner,  Lancaster,  Pa .  .  Practitioner,  Lancaster,  Pennsylvania. 

Practitioner,  London Practitioner,  London. 

Prag.  med.  Wchnschr Prager  medizinische  Wochenschrift,  Prag. 

Prakt.  Arzt Praktische  Arzt,  Wetzlar. 

Presse  med Presse  medicale,  Paris. 

Proc.  Am.  Assn.  Advancem. 

Sc Proceedings  of  the  American  Association  for 

the  Advancement  of  Science,  Salem,  Mas- 
sachusetts. 
Proc.  Am.  Assn.  Phys.  and 

Surg Proceedings  of  the  American  Association  of 

Physicians  and  Surgeons,  Indianapolis. 
Proc.  Am.  Pharm.  Assn Proceedings  of  the  American  Pharmaceutical 

Association,  Scio,  Ohio. 

Proc.  Chem.  Soc Proceedings  of  the  Chemical  Society,  London. 

Proc.  New  York  Path.  Soc..  .Proceedings  of  the  New  York  Pathological 

Society,  New  York  City. 
Proc.    Path.    Soc.     Philadel- 
phia   Proceedings  of  the   Pathological   Society   of 

Philadelphia,  Philadelphia. 
Proc.  Philadelphia  Co.  Med. 

Soc Proceedings    of    the     Philadelphia     County 

Medical  Society,  Philadelphia. 
Proc.  Roy.  Med.  and  Chir. 

Soc Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Medical  and  Chirur- 

gical  Society  of  London,  London. 
Proc.  Roy.  Soc.  Med Proceedings  of  the  Royal  Society  of  Medicine. 

London. 

Proc.  Soc.  Exper.  Biol.  and 
Med Proceedings  of  the  Society  for  Experimental 

Biology  and  Medicine,  New  York  City. 
Proc.  U.  S.  Nat.  Mus Proceedings  of  the  United  States  National 

Museum,  Washington,  D.  C. 


ABBREVIATIONS  FOR  MEDICAL  JOURNALS    137 

Proctol.  and  Gastro-EnteroL.Proctologist     and     Gastro-Enterologist.     St. 
Louis. 

Progrds  m€d Progres  medical,  Paris. 

Progr.  Med Progressive  Medicine,  Philadelphia. 

Providence  Med.  Jour Providence  Medical  Journal,  Providence. 

Province  me<l Province  rrUklicale,  Paris. 

Psychoanal.  Rev Psychoanalytic  Review,  Lancaster,  Pennsyl- 
vania. 

Psychol.  Bull Psychological    Bulletin,   Lancaster,   Pennsyl- 
vania. 

Psychol.  Mon Psychological  Monographs,  Lancaster,  Penn- 
sylvania. 

Pub.     Cornell    Univ.     Med. 

Coll :  Publications  of  Cornell  University  Medical 

College,  New  York  City. 

Pub.  Health  Jour Public  Health  Journal.  Toronto. 

Pub.  Health  Rep Public  Health  Reports,  United  States  Public 

Health  Service,  Washington,  D.  C. 

Quarderni  di  med.  leg Quarderni  di  medicina  legale,  Milano. 

Quarderni  di  psichiat Quarderni  di  psichiatria,  Genova. 

Quart.     Fed.     State     Med. 

Boards Quarterly  of  the  Federation  of  State  Medical 

Boards    of    the    United    States,    Easton, 
Pennsylvania. 

Quart.  Jour.  Exper.  Physiol.  .Quarterly    Journal    of    Experimental    Physi- 
ology, London. 

Quart.  Jour.  Inebr Quarterly    Journal    of    Inebriety,    Hartford, 

Connecticut. 

Quart.  Jour.  Med Quarterly  Journal  of  Medicine,  Oxford. 

Quart.  Jour.  Micr.  Sc Quarterly  Journal  of  Microscopical  Science, 

London. 

Queen's  Med.  Quart Queen's  Medical  Quarterly,  Kingston,  Canada. 

Quinzaine  the'rap Quinzaine  th£rapeutique,  Paris. 

Radium Radium,  Pittsburgh. 

Railway  Surg.  Jour Railway  Surgeon's  Journal,  Chicago. 

Recalled  to  Life Recalled  to  Life,  London. 

Rec.  d'opht Recueil  d'ophthalmologie,  Paris. 

Repert.  de  phar Repertoire  de  phannacie,  Paris. 

Repert.  f .  d.  Pharm Repertorium  fflr  der  Pharmacie,  Berlin. 

Rev.  Ibero-Am.  de  cien.  med .  Revista  Iberc-Americana  de  ciencias  medicas, 
Madrid. 

Rev.     ital.     di     neuropatol., 

psichiat.  ed  elettroter Revista  italiana  di  neuropatologia,  psichiat- 
ria ed  elettroterapia,  Catania. 

Rev.  mi'-d.  Cub Revista  m6dica  Cubana,  Habana. 

Rev.  med Revista  m£dica,  Mexico. . 

Rev.  me'd.  d.  Uruguay Revista  medica  del  Uruguay,  Montevideo. 

Rev.  de  med.  y  drug Revista  de  medicina  y  cirugia,  Barcelona. 

Rev.  de  med.  y  cirug.  de  la 

Habana Revista  de  medicina  y  cirugia  de  la  Habana. 

Habana. 

Rev.  de  med.  y  cirug.  pract .  .  Revista    de    medicina    y    cirugia    practicas, 
Madrid. 

Rev.  Soc.  m6d.  arg Revista   de   la   Sociedad    m€dica    argentina, 

Buenos  Aires. 


138 


THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 


Rev.  de  chir Revue  de  chirurgie,  Paris. 

Rev.    gen.    de    clin.    et    de 

th6rap Revue  generate  de  clinique  et  de  th6rapeu- 

tique,  Paris. 

Rev.  g£n.  d'opht Revue  generate  d'ophthalmologie,  Paris. 

Rev.   de  gyne'c.   et  de  chir. 

abd Revue   de   gynecologic   et   de   chirurgie   ab- 

dominale,  Paris. 
Rev.  hebd.  de  laryngol Revue  hebdomadaire  de  laryngologie,  d'otol- 

ogie,  et  de  rhinologie,  Bordeaux. 

Rev.  d'hyg Revue  d'hygidne  et  de  police  sanitaire,  Paris. 

Rev.    d'hyg.    et    de   the'rap. 

ocul Revue  d 'hygie'ne    et  de    theVapeutique  ocu- 

laires,  Bruges,  Angouleme,  et  Paris. 
Rev.  de  laryngol.,  d'otol.,  et 

de  rhinol Revue    de    laryngologie,    d'otologie,    et    de 

rhinologie,  Bordeaux. 

Rev.  med.  de  Test Revue  m6dicale  de  Test,  Nancy. 

Rev.  m6d.  de  la  Suisse Revue     me'dicale     de    la     Suisse     romande, 

Geneve. 

Rev.  de  med Revue  de  mfidecine,  Paris. 

Rev.  mens.  de  gynec.,  d'ob- 

stet.,  et  de  pediat Revue    mcnsuelle   de    gynecologic,    d'obst^t- 

rique,  et  de  p6diatrie,  Paris. 
Rev.  mens.  d.  mal.dl'enf. ..  .Revue  mensuelle  des  maladies  de  1'enfance, 

Paris. 

Rev.  neurol Revue  neurologique,  Paris. 

Rev.  d'orthop Revue  d'orthopedie,  Paris. 

Rev.     prat,    d'obst.     et     de 
gynec Revue  pratique  d'obst6trique  et  de  gyn£col- 

ogie,  Paris. 
Rev.  de  therap.  me'd.-chir Revue  de  therapeutique  medico-chirurgicale, 

Paris. 

Riforma  med Riforma  medica,  Napoli. 

Riv.  clin.  di  Bologna Rivista  clinica  di  Bologna,  Bologna. 

Riv.  crit.  di  clin.  med Rivista  critica  di  clinica  medica,  Firenze. 

Riv.  d'ig.  e  san.  pubb Rivista  d'igiene  e  sanita  pubblica,  Roma. 

Riv.  internaz.  di  terap.  fis. .  .  .  Rivista  internazionale  di  terapia  fisica,  Roma. 
Riv.  med Rivista  medica.     Periodico  mensile  di  medi- 

cina,  terapia  e  d'igiene,  Milano. 

Riv.  osp Rivista  ospedaliera,  Roma. 

Riv.  di  patol.  nerv Rivista    di    patologia    nervosa    e    mentale, 

Firenze. 
Riv.  sper.  di  freniat Rivista  sperimentale  di  freniatria  e  di  medi- 

cina  legale  in  relazione  con  I'antropOldgia  e 

le    scienze    giuridiche    e    sociali,    Reggio- 

Emilia. 
Russk.    Arch.    Patol.,    Klin. 

Med.  i  Bakteriol Russkiy  Archiv  Patolpgii,  Klinicheskol  Med- 

itsini  i  Bakteriologii,  Petrograd. 
Russk.   Jur.   Kozhn.   i   Ven. 

Boliezn Russkiy  Jurnal  Kozhnikh  i  Venericheskikh 

Bolleznel,  Kharkov. 
Russk.  Vrach Russkiy  Vrach,  Petrograd. 

Samml.  klin.  Vortr Sammlung  klinischer  Vortrage,  Leipzig. 

Shorn,  klin Sbornik   klinicky.      Casopis   pestovdni   vedy 

lekafske.     Praze. 


ABBREVIATIONS  FOR  MEDICAL  JOURNALS    139 

Schmidt's  Jahrb Schmidt's  Jahrbticher  der  in-  und  ausiandis- 

chen  gesamten  Medizin.  Leipzig. 

Science Science,  New  York  City. 

Sc.  Progr.  Twentieth  Cent .  .  Science  Progress  in  the  Twentieth  Century, 
London. 

Scient.  Am Scientific  American,  New  York  City. 

Schweiz.  Arch.  f.  Neurol.  u. 

Psychiat Schweizer  Archiv  ftir  Neurologic   und   Psy- 
chiatric, Zurich. 

Schweiz.  med.  Wchnschr.  .  .  .  Schweizerische  me,dizinische  Wochenschrift, 
Basel. 

Scot.  Med.  and  Surg.  Jour.  .Scottish  Medical  and  Surgical  Journal,  Edin- 
burgh. 

Sei-i-Kwai  Med.  Jour Sei-i-Kwai  Medicaj  Journal,  Tokyo. 

Semaine  gynec Semaine  gyn6cologique,  Paris. 

Semaine  m6d Semaine  meclicale,  Paris. 

Semana  med Semana  medica,  Buenos  Aires. 

Settimana    med.    d.    Speri- 

mentale Settimana  medica  dello  Sperimentale,  Firenze. 

Siglo  med Siglo  medico,  Madrid. 

Skandinav.  Arch.  f.  Phys.  .  .  Skandinavisches  Archiv  ftir  Physiologic, 
Leipzig. 

Soc.  Hyg Social  Hygiene,  Menasha,  Wisconsin. 

South.  Calif.  Pract Southern  California  Practitioner,  Los  Angeles. 

South.  Clin Southern  Clinic,  Richmond,  Virginia. 

South.  Med.  Jour Southern  Medical  Journal.     Journal  of  the 

Southern  Medical  Association,  Louisville, 
Kentucky. 

South.  Med.  Jour • Southern  Medical  Journal,  Mobile,  Alabama. 

South.  Med.  and  Surg Southern  Medicine  and  Surgery,  Chattanooga, 

Tennessee. 

South.  Pract Southern  Practitioner,  Nashville,  Tennessee. 

Southwest   Jour.    Med.    and 

Surg Southwest  Journal  of  Medicine  and  Surgeryt 

Elreno,  Oklahoma. 

Soziale  Med.  u.  Hyg Soziale  Medizin  und  Hygiene,  Hamburg. 

Sperimentale Sperimentale:   Archivio  di  biologia  normale  e 

patologica,  Firenze. 

Spitalul Spitalul,  Bucuresce. 

St.  Earth.  Hosp.  Rep St.  Bartholomew's  Hospital  Reports,  Lon- 
don. 

St.  Louis  Clinique St.  Louis  Clinique,  St.  Louis.. 

St.  Louis  Cour.  Med St.  Louis  Courier  of  Medicine,  St.  Louis. 

St.  Louis  Med.  Rev St.  Louis  Medical  Review.     Now  combined 

with  Medical  Era  under  title  of  Medical 
Review,  St.  Louis. 

St.  Paul  Med.  Jour St.  Paul  Medical  Journal,  St.  Paul. 

St.  Petersb.  med.  Wchnschr. St.  Petersburger  medicinische  Wochenschrift; 
continued  as  St.  Petersburger  medicinische 
Zeitschrift. 

St.  Petersb.  med.  Ztschr. . .  .St.  Petersburger  medicinische  Zeitschrift: 
See  Petrograder  medicinische  Zeitschrift, 
Petrograd. 

St.  Thomas'  Hosp.  Rep St.  Thomas'  Hospital  Reports,  London. 

Strahlentherapie,  Orig Strahlentherapie      Mitteilungen      aus      dem 

Gebiete  der  Behandlung  mit  Rontgen- 
strahlen,  Licht,  und  radioaktiven  Sub- 
stanzen.  Originale;  Berlin. 


140          THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

Strahlentherapie,  Ref Strahlentherapie  Mitteilungen  aus  dem 

Gebiete  der  Behandlung  mit  Rontgen- 
strahlen,  Licht,  und  radioaktiven  Sub- 
stanzen.  Referate;  Berlin. 

Studium Studium;  rivista  di  scienza  medica,  Napoli. 

Surg.  Clin.  Chicago ........  Surgical  Clinics  of  Chicago,  Philadelphia,  con- 
tinued as  Surgical  Clinics  of  North  America. 

Surg.  Clin.  N.  Amer Surgical  Clinics  of  North  America,  Philadel- 
phia. 

Surg.,  Gy nee.  and  Obst Surgery,  Gynecology  and  Obstetrics,  with 

International  Abstract  of  Surgery,  Chicago. 

Texas  Cour.-Rec.  Med Texas    Courier- Record    of    Medicine,    Fort 

Worth. 

Texas  Med.  Jour Texas  Medical  Journal,  Austin. 

Texas  Med.  News Texas  Medical  News,  Austin. 

Texas  State  Jour.  Med Texas  State  Journal  of  Medicine,  Fort  Worth. 

Therap.  Gaz Therapeutic  Gazette,  Detroit. 

Therap.  Monatsh Therapeutische  Monatshefte,  Berlin. 

Therap.  Neuheiten Therapeutische  Neuheiten,  Leipzig. 

Therap.  d.  Gegenw Therapie  der  Gegenwart,  Berlin  und  Wien. 

Tidsskr.  f.  d.  norske  Laegef or .  Tidsskrift     for    den     norske     Laegeforening, 

Kristiania. 
Tohoku  Jour.  Exper.  Med.  .  .Tohoku  Journal  of  Experimental  Medicine, 

Sendal,  Japan. 
Toledo  Med.  and  Surg.  Re- 
porter  Toledo     Medical     and     Surgical     Reporter, 

Toledo,  Ohio. 
Tr.  Am.  Acad.  Ophth.  and 

Oto-Laryngol Transactions  of  the  American  Academy  of 

Ophthalmology      and      Oto  -  Laryngology, 

Cleveland. 
Tr.    Am.    Assn.    Gen.-Urin. 

Surg Transactions  of  the  American  Association  of 

Genito-Urinary  Surgeons,  New  York  City. 
Tr.  Am.  Assn.  Obst Transactions  of  the  American  Association  of 

Obstetricians    and    Gynecologists,     Phila- 
delphia. 
Tr.  Am.  Dermat.  Assn Transactions  of  the  American  Dermatological 

Association,  New  York  City. 
Tr.  Am.  Gynec.  Soc Transactions  of  the  American  Gynecological 

Society,  Philadelphia. 

Tr.  Am.  Hosp.  Assn Transactions  of  the  American  Hospital  Asso- 
ciation, Washington,  D.  C. 

Tr.  Am.  Med.  Assn Transactions  of  the  American  Medical  Asso- 
ciation, Chicago. 
Tr.  Am.  Neurol.  Assn Transactions  of  the  American   Neurological 

Association,  New  York  City. 
Tr.  Am.  Ophth.  Soc Transactions   of   the   American   Ophthalmo- 

logical  Society,  New  York  City. 
Tr.  Am.  Orthop.  Assn Transactions   of   the   American    Orthopaedic 

Association,  Philadelphia. 
Tr.  Am.  Otol.  Soc Transactions    of    the    American    Otological 

Society,  New  Bedford,  Massachusetts. 
Tr.  Am.  Pediat.  Soc Transactions     of     the     American     Pediatric 

Society,  Philadelphia. 
Tr.  Am.  Proctol.  Soc Transactions    of    the    American    Proctologic 

Society,  St.  Louis. 


ABBREVIATIONS  FOR  MEDICAL  JOURNALS    141 

Tr.  Am.  Roentgen  Ray  Soc .  .  Transactions  of  the  American  Roentgen  Ray 
Society,  Pittsburgh. 

Tr.  Am.  Surg.  Assn Transactions  of  the  American  Surgical  Asso- 
ciation, Philadelphia. 

Tr.  Assn.  Am.  Phys Transactions  of  the  Association  of  American 

Physicians,  Philadelphia. 

Tr.  Chem.  Soc Transactions  of  the  Chemical  Society,  London. 

Tr.  Chicago  Path.  Soc Transactions    of    the    Chicago    Pathological 

Society,  Chicago. 

Tr.  Chicago  Soc.  Int.  Med. .  .Transactions    of    the    Chicago    Society    of 
Internal  Medicine,  Chicago. 

Xr.  Clin.  Soc.  London Transactions    of    the     Clinical    Society    of 

London,  London. 

Tr.  Med.  Soc.  New  York.  .  .Transactions  of  the  Medical  Society  of  the 
State  of  New  York,  New  York  City. 

Tr.  New  York  Med.  Assn. .  .Transactions  of  the  New  York  State  Medical 
Association,  New  York  City. 

Tr.  Ophth.  Soc.  U.  Kingdom  .Transactions  of  the  Ophthalmological  Society 
of  the  United  Kingdom,  London. 

Tr.  Path.  Soc.  London Transactions  of  the  Pathological  Society  of 

London,  London. 

Tr.  Sect.  Dermat.  Am.  Med. 

Assn Transactions  of  the  Section  on  Dermatology 

of    the    American     Medical    Association, 
Chicago. 

Tr.    Sect.    Dis.    Child.    Am. 

Med.  Assn Transactions  of  the  Section  on  Diseases  of 

Children  of  the  American  Medical  Associa- 
tion, Chicago. 

Tr.   Sect.   Hosp.  Am.   Med. 

Assn Transactions  of  the  Section  on  Hospitals  of 

the  American  Medical  Association,  Chicago. 

Tr.   Sect.   Genito-Urin.   Dis. 

Am.  Med.  Assn Transactions  of  the  Section  on  Genito-Urinary 

Diseases  of  the  American  Medical  Associa- 
tion, Chicago. 

Tr.    Sect.    Laryngol.,    Otol., 
and    Rhinol.    Am.    Med. 

Assn Transactions  of  the  Section  on  Laryngology, 

Otology,  and  Rhinology  of  the  American 
Medical  Association,  Chicago. 

Tr.  Sect.  Nerv.  and   Ment. 

Dis.  Am.  Med.  Assn Transactions  of  the  Section  on  Nervous  and 

Mental  Diseases  of  the  American  Medical 
Association,  Chicago. 

Tr.  Sect.  Obst.,  Gynec.,  and 
Abd.     Surg.     Am.     Med. 

Assn Transactions  of   the  Section  on  Obstetrics, 

Gynecology,  and  Abdominal  Surgery  of  the 
American  Medical  Association,  Chicago. 

Tr.  Sect.  Ophth.  Am.  Med. 

Assn Transactions  of  the  Section  on  Ophthalmology 

of    the    American    Medical     Association, 
Chicago. 

Tr.   Sect.   Orth.   Surg.   Am. 

Med.  Assn Transactions  of  the  Section  on  Orthopedic 

Surgery  of  the  American  Medical  Associa- 
tion, Chicago. 


142          THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

Tr.  Sect.  Path,  and  Physiol. 

Am.  Med.  Assn Transactions  of  the  Section  on  Pathology  and 

Physiology     of     the     American     Medical 
Association,  Chicago. 
Tr.    Sect.    Pharmacol.    and  . 

Therap.Am.  Med.  Assn. .  .Transactions  of  the  Section  on  Pharmacology 
and  Therapeutics  of  the  American  Medical 
Association,  Chicago. 
Tr.   Sect.   Pract.   Med.  Am. 

Med.  Assn Transactions  of  the  Section  on  Practice  of 

Medicine  of  the  American  Medical  Associa- 
tion, Chicago. 

Tr.    Sect.    Prev.    Med.    and 
Pub.    Health    Am.    Med. 

Assn Transactions  of  the  Section  on   Preventive 

Medicine  and  Public  Health  of  the  American 
Medical  Association,  Chicago. 
Tr.  Sect.  Stomat.  Am.  Med. 

Assn Transactions  of  the  Section  on  Stomatology 

of    the    American    Medical    Association, 
Chicago. 
Tr.    Sect.    Surg.,    Gen.    and 

Abd.,  Am.  Med.  Assn Transactions    of    the    Section    on    Surgery, 

General  and  Abdominal,  of  the  American 
Medical  Association,  Chicago. 
Tr.  South.  Surg.  and  Gynec. 

Assn Transactions  of  the  Southern  Surgical  and 

Gynecological  Association.     (Published  in 
various  places.) 

Tribuna  med Tribuna     medica.       Revista     quinzenal     de 

medicina  e  cirugia,  Rio  de  Janeiro. 

Tribune  med.,  Am.  ed Tribune    medicale,    American    edition,    New 

York  City. 

Tribune  med Tribune  medicale,  Paris. 

Trudi  i  Protok.   Imp.   Kav- 

kazsk.  Med.  Obsh Trudi  i  Protokoli  Imperatorskavo  Kavkazs- 

kavo  Meditsinskavo  Obshtshestva,  Tiflis. 

Tuberculosi . Tubercolosi,  Roma. 

Tuberculosis Tuberculosis,  Leipzig. 

Tuberculosis Tuberculosis,  London. 

.Tumori Tumori,  Roma. 

Ugesk.  f .  Laeger Ugeskrift  for  Laeger,  Kjobenhavn. 

Ungar.  med.  Presse Ungarische  medizinische  Presse,  Budapest. 

U.  S.  Nav.  Med.  Bull United  States  Naval  Medical  Bulletin,  Wash- 
ington, D.  C. 

Univ.  Med.  Mag University  Medical  Magazine  (edited  by  the 

University  of  Pennsylvania),  Philadelphia. 

Univ.  Penn.  Med.  Bull University  of  Pennsylvania  Medical  Bulletin, 

Philadelphia. 

Upsala  Lakaref .  Forh Upsala   Lakaref orenings   Forhandlingar,  Up- 

sala. 

Urol.  and  Cutan.  Rev.,  Tech. 

Suppl Urologie  and  Cutaneous  Review,  Technical 

Supplement,  St.  Louis. 

Urol.  and  Cutan.  Rev Urologie  and  Cutaneous  Review,  St.  Louis. 

Utah  Med.  Jour Utah  Medical  Journal,  Denver. 


ABBREVIATIONS  FOR  MEDICAL  JOURNALS    143 

Verhandl.   d.    Cong.   f.   inn. 

Med Verhandlungen    des    Congresses    fUr    innere 

Medicin,  Wiesbaden. 
Verhandl.  d.  deutsch.  Kong. 

f.  inn.  Med Verhandlungen  des  deutschen  Kongresses  fttr 

innere  Medizin.  Wiesbaden. 
Verhandl.  d.  deutsch.  Gesell- 

sch.  f.  Chir Verhandlungen    der    deutschen    Gesellschaft 

filr  Chirurgie,  Berlin. 
Verhandl.  d.  deutsch.  path. 

Gesellsch Verhandlungen  der  deutschen  pathologischen 

Gesellschaft,  Jena. 
Verhandl.   d.    Kong.   f.   inn. 

Med Verhandlungen    des    Kongresses    fflr    innere 

Medizin,  Wiesbaden. 
Verhandl.  d.  Ver.  f.  inn.  Med. 

zu  Berlin Verhandlungen  des  Vereins  fiir  innere  Medizin 

zu  Berlin,  Leipzig  und  Berlin. 

Vermont  Med.  Month Vermont  Medical  Monthly,  Burlington. 

Vermont  Med Vermont  Medicine,  Rutland. 

Venvorn's  Ztschr! Verworn's    Zeitschrift:     See    Zeitschrift    fiir 

allgemeine  Physiologic,  Jena. 

Vet.  Jour Veterinary  Journal,  London. 

Vet.  Rev Veterinary  Review,  Edinburgh. 

Vrtljschr.  f.  gerichtl.  Med  .  .  .  Vierteljahrsschrift   fiir    gerichtliche    Medizin 

und  offentliches  Sanitatswesen,   Berlin. 
Vrtljschr.  f .  prakt.  Pharm .  .  .  Vierteljahrsschrift  fiir  praktische  Pharmazie, 

Berlin. 
Virchow's     Arch.     f.     path. 

Anat Virchow's  Archiv  fiir  pathologische  Anatomic 

und  Physiologic  und  fiir  klinische  Medicin, 

Berlin. 

Virginia  Clin.  Rec Virginia  Clinical  Record,  Richmond. 

Virginia  Med.  Month Virginia  Medical  Monthly,  Richmond.    Con- 
tinued as  Virginia  Medical  Semi-Monthly, 

Richmond. 

Virginia  Med.  Semi-Month.  .Virginia  Medical  Semi-Monthly,  Richmond. 
Volkmann's  klin.  Vortr Volkmann's  klinische  Vortrage:    See  Samm- 

lung  klinischer  Vortrage,  Leipzig. 

Vrach Vrach,  Petrograd. 

Vrach,  Gaz Vrachebnaya  Gazeta,  Petrograd. 

Washington  Med.  Ann Washington    Medical    Annals,    Washington, 

D.  C. 

West.  Canada  Med.  Jour.  .  .Western  Canada  Medical  Journal,  Winnipeg. 
West.  Dent.  Jour Western     Dental     Journal,     Kansas     City, 

Missouri. 

West.  Clin.  Rec Western  Clinical  Recorder,  Chicago. 

West.  Druggist Western  Druggist,  Chicago. 

West.  Med.  Jour Western  Medical  Journal,  Fort  Scott,  Kansas. 

West.  Med.  Rev Western  Medical  Review,  Omaha. 

West.  Med.  Times Western  Medical  Times,  Denver. 

West.  Med.  and  Surg.  Gaz,.  .Western     Medical     and     Surgical     Gazette, 

Denver. 

West  London  Med.  Jour..  .  .West  London  Medical  Journal,  London. 
West  Virginia  Med.  Jour..  .  .West  Virginia  Medical  Journal,  Wheeling. 

Wien.  klin.  Rundschau Wiener  klinische  Rundschau,  Wien. 

Wien.  klin.  Wchnschr.  .       .  .Wiener  klinische  Wochenschrift,  Wien. 


144          THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

Wien.  med.  Bl . . . Wiener  medizinische  Blatter,  Wien. 

Wien.  med.  Presse Wiener  medizinische  Presse,  Wien. 

Wien.  med.  Wchnschr Wiener  medizinische  Wochenschrift,  Wien. 

Wisconsin  Med.  Jour Wisconsin  Medical  Journal,  Milwaukee. 

Wisconsin  Med.  Rec Wisconsin  Medical  Recorder,  Janesville. 

Wchnschr.  f.  Therap.  u.  Hyg. 

d.  Auges Wochenschrift  fur  Therapie  und  Hygiene  des 

Auges,  Breslau. 

Woman's  Med.  Jour Woman's  Medical  Journal,  Toledo,  Ohio. 

Wyandotte  Co.  Med.  Jour.  .Wyandotte  County  Medical  Journal,  Kansas 

City,  Kansas. 

Yale  Med.  Jour Yale    Medical    Journal,    New    Haven,    Con- 
necticut. 
Ztschr.  d.  allg.  osterr.  Apoth.- 

Ver Zeitschrift   des   allgemeinen   osterreichischen 

Apotheker-Vereines,  Wien. 

Ztschr.  f .  allg.  Physiol Zeitschrift  ftir  allgemeine  Physiologic,  Jena. 

Ztschr.  f .  anal.  Chem Zeitschrift    fiir    analytische    Chemie,    Wies- 
baden. 

Ztschr.  f .  ang.  Chem Zeitschrift  fiir  angewandte  Chemie,  Berlin. 

Ztschr.  f .  anorg.  Chem Zeitschrift  fiir  anorganische   Chemie,   Ham- 
burg. 
Ztschr.  f.  arztl.  Fortbild .  .  .  .Zeitschrift  ftir  arztliche  Fortbildung,  Jena. 

Ztschr.  f .  Biol Zeitschrift  fiir  Biologic,  Miinchen. 

Ztschr.    f.    Chemotherap., 

Orig Zeitschrift  fiir  Chemptherapie  und  verwandte 

Gebiete  Teil  I,  Originale,  Leipzig. 
Ztschr.      f.      Chemotherap., 

Ref Zeitschrift  fiir  Chemotherapie  und  verwandte 

Gebiete  Teil  II,  Ref  era  te,  Leipzig. 
Ztschr.  f.  diatet.  u.  physik. 

Therap Zeitschrift  fiir  diatetische  und  physikalische 

Therapie,  Leipzig. 
Ztschr.    f.    exper.    Path.    u. 

Therap Zeitschrift  fiir  experimentelle  Pathologic  und 

Therapie,  Berlin. 
Ztschr.  f.  Geburtsh.  u.  Gy- 

nak Zeitschrift  fiir  Geburtshiilfe  und  Gynakologie, 

Stuttgart. 
Ztschr.  f.  d.  ges.  Neurol.  u. 

Psychiat Zeitschrift  ftir  die  gesamte  Neurologie  und 

Psychiatric,  Berlin. 

Ztschr.  f.  Heilk Zeitschrift  fiir  Heilkunde,  Prague. 

Ztschr.  f .  Hyg Zeitschrift  fiir  Hygiene,  Leipzig. 

Ztschr.  f.  Hyg.  u.  Infections- 

krankh Zeitschrift  fiir  Hygiene  und  Infectionskrank- 

heiten,  Leipzig. 
Ztschr.  f.  Immunitatsforsch. 

u.  exper.  Therap.,  Orig. ..  .Zeitschrift     fiir     Immunitatsforschung     und 
experimentelle  Therapie.    I  Teil;  Originale; 
Jena. 
Ztschr.  f.  Immunitatsforsch.  u. 

exper.  Therap.,  Ref Zeitschrift     fiir     Immunitatsforschung     und 

experimentelle  Therapie.     Referate.    Jena. 

Ztschr.  f.  Infektionskr Zeitschrift  fur   Infektionskrankheiten,   para- 

sitare     Krankheiten     und     Hygiene     der 
Haustiere,  Berlin. 


ABBREVIATIONS  FOR  MEDICAL  JOURNALS    145 

Ztschr.  f.  Kinderb Zeitschrift  fflr  Kinderheilkunde,  Berlin. 

Ztschr.  f .  klin.  Med Zeitschrift  fUr  klinische  Medicin,  Berlin. 

Ztschr.  f .  Krebsforsch Zeitschrift  fUr  Krebsforschung,  Jena. 

Ztschr.  f .  Naturwissensch .  .  .  Zeitschrift   ftir    Xaturwissenschaf ten.    Stutt- 
gart. 

Ztschr.  f.  d.  ges.  Neurol.  u. 

'  Psychiat.,  Orig Zeitschrift  ftir  die  gesamte   Neurologic  und 

Psychiatric;  Originale;  Berlin. 

Ztschr.  f.  d.  ges.  Neurol.  u. 

Psychiat.,  Ref Zeitschrift  fflr  die  gesamte  Neurologic  und 

Psychiatric;  Referate;  Berlin. 

Ztschr.  f.  med.  Elektrol.  n. 

Rontgenk Zeitschrift  fur  medizinische  Elektrologie  und 

Rontgenkunde,  Leipzig. 

Ztschr.  f.  offentl.  Chem Zeitschrift  fflr  offentliche  Chemie.  Plauen. 

Ztschr.  f.  Ohrenh Zeitschrift  fUr  Ohrenheilkunde.  Wiesbaden. 

Ztschr.  f.  orthop.  Chir Zeitschrift  fflr  orthopadische  Chirurgie,  Stutt- 
gart. 

Ztschr.  f.  physiol.  Chem ....  Zeitschrift  fflr  physiologische  Chemie,  Strass- 
burg. 

Zeitschr.  f.  physik.  u.  diatet. 

Therap Zeitschrift  fflr  physikalische  und  diatetische 

Therapie,  Leipzig. 

Ztschr.  f.  Psychol.  u.  Physiol. 

d.  Sinnesorg Zeitschrift  fflr  Psychologic  und   Physiologic 

der  Sinnesorgane,  Leipzig. 

Ztschr.  f .  Sexual  wissensch . . .  Zeitschrift  fflr  Sexual  wissenschaf t,  Bonn. 

Ztschr.   f.   Tuberk.   u.   Heil- 

stattenw Zeitschrift  fflr  Tuberkulose  und  Heilstatten- 

wesen,  Leipzig. 

Ztschr.  f.  soziale  Med Zeitschrift  fflr  soziale  Medizin.     Medizinal- 

statistik,  Arbeitsversicherung,  soziale  Hy- 
giene und  die  Grenzfragen  der  Medizin  und 
Volkswirtschaft,  Berlin. 

Ztschr.  f.  Untersuch.  d.  Nah- 

rungs-  u.  Genussmittel ....  Zeitschrift  fttr  Untersuchung  der  Nahrungs- 
und  Genussmittel,  Berlin. 

Ztschr.  f.  Urol Zeitschrift    fflr   Urologie,    Berlin   und    Leip- 

r~  zig. 

Ztschr.  f.  urol.  Chir Zeitschrift  fflr  urologische  Chirurgie,  Berlin. 

Ztschr.  f .  wissensch.  Zool .  .  .  Zeitschrift    fflr    wissenschaftliche     Zoologie, 
Leipzig. 

Ztschr.  f.  wissensch.  Mikr.  u. 

mikr.  Technik Zeitschrift  fflr  wissenschaftliche  Mikroskopie 

und  mikroskopische  Technik,  Leipzig. 

Ztschr.     f.     Wundarzte     u. 

Geburtsh Zeitschrift  fflr  Wundarzte  und  Geburtshelfer, 

Fellbach. 

Ziegler's  Beitr Ziegler's  Beitrage:    See  Beitrage  zur  patho- 

logischen  Anatomic  und  zur  allgemeinen 
Pathologic,  Jena. 

Zentralbl.:  See  also  Centralbl. 

Zentralbl.     f.    allg.    Gsndht- 

spflg Zentralblatt     fflr    allgemeine     Gesundheits- 

pflege,  Bonn. 

Zentralbl.   f.    allg.    Path.    u. 

path.  Anat Zentralblatt  fflr  allgemeine   Pathologic   und 

pathologische  Anatomic,  Jena. 

10 


146          THE  WRITING  OF  MEDICAL  PAPERS 

Zentralbl.  f.  Bakteriol.  Para- 

sitenk.  u.  Infektionskr.  .  .  .  Zentralblatt  ftir  Bakteriologie,  Parasitenkunde 

und  Infektionskrankheiten,  Jena. 
Zentralbl.     f.     Biochem.     u. 

Biophys Zentralblatt  fur   Biochemie   und    Biophysik, 

Berlin. 

Zentralbl.  f.  Chir Zentralblatt.  fur  Chirurgie,  Leipzig. 

Zentralbl.  f.  chir.   u.   mech. 

Orthop Zentralblatt  fiir  chirurgische  und  mechanische 

Orthopadie,  Berlin. 
Zentralbl.  d.  exper.  Med ....  Zentralblatt    der    experimentellen    Medizin, 

Berlin  und  Wien. 
Zentralbl.  f.  d.  ges.  Chir.  u. 

i.  Grenzgeb Zentralblatt  fflr  die  gesamte  Chirurgie  und 

ihre  Grenzgebiete,  Berlin. 
Zentralbl.  f.  d.  ges.  Gynaek. 

u.  Geburtsh Zentralblatt  fur  die  gesamte  Gynaekologie  und 

Geburtshilfe    sowie    deren     Grenzgebiete, 
Berlin. 
Zentralbl.  f.  d.  ges.  inn.  Med. 

u.  i.  Grenzgeb Zentralblatt  fiir  die  gesamte  innere  Medizin 

und  ihre  Grenzgebiete,  Berlin. 
Zentralbl.  f.  d.  ges.  Ophth.  u. 

i.  Grenzgeb Zentralblatt  fiir  die  gesamte  Ophthalmologie 

und  ihre  Grenzgebiete,  Berlin. 
Zentralbl.  f.  d.  ges.  Physiol. 

u.  Path.  d.  Stoffwechs.  . .  .Zentralblatt  fiir  die  gesamte  Physiologic  und 
Pathologic  des  Stoffwechsels  mit  Einschluss 
der  experimentellen  Therapie,  Berlin  und 
Wien. 

Zentralbl.  f.  Gynak Zentralblatt  fur  Gynakologie,  Leipzig. 

Zentralbl.    f.    Herz-    u.  Ge- 

fasskr Zentralblatt  fiirHerz-  und  Gefasskrankheiten, 

Dresden  und  Leipzig. 

Zentralbl.  f.  inn.  Med Zentralblatt  fiir  innere  Medizin,  Leipzig. 

Zentralbl.     f.     Nervenh.     u. 

Psychiat Zentralblatt  fiir  Nervenheilkunde  und   Psy- 
chiatric, Leipzig. 
Zentralbl.  f.  norm.  Anat.  u. 

Mikrotech Zentralblatt    fiir     normale     Anatomic     und 

Mikrotechnik,  Berlin  und  Wien. 
Zentralbl.  f.  physik.  Therap. 

u.  Unfallk Zentralblatt  fiir  physikalische  Therapie  und 

Unfallheilkunde,  Wien  und  Berlin. 

Zentralbl.  f.  Physiol Zentralblatt    fur    Physiologic,    Leipzig    und 

Wien. 

Zentralbl.  f.  Roentgenstr Zentralblatt   fur   Roentgenstrahlen,    Radium 

und  verwandte  Gebiete,  Wiesbaden. 

Zoologica Zoologica,  Stuttgart. 

Zool.  Anz Zoologischer  Anzeiger,  Leipzig. 

Zool.  Zentralbl Zoologisches  Zentralblatt,  Leipzig. 

Zoologist Zoologist,  London. 


INDEX 


A 

Abbreviate  and  abridge,  55 

Abbreviations:  28;  bibliographic  matter,  23;  cities,  26;  coined 
85;  company,  28;  degrees,  academic,  26;  dosages,  28;  eighth- 
molecular,  28;  footnotes,  23;  fourth  cervical,  28;  grains,  28; 
inches,  28;  list  of  standard,  24;  medical  journals,  117; 
names  foreign  countries,  28;  proper  names,  25;  one-sixth 
by  volume,  28;  ratio, '28;  references,  92;  second  lumbar,  28; 
specific  gravity,  28;  states,  27;  tables,  21 ;  tenth-normal,  28; 
times  a  day,  28;  weights  and  measures,  23 

Above  and  foregoing,  55 

Abstracts,  form  of,  85 

Adjectives  with  variant  endings,  54 

Adverbs,  46 

Affect  and  effect,  55 

Agree  to  and  agree  with,  50 

Alike  and  both,  55 

All  right  and  universally,  56 

Allege  and  say,  56 

Alone  and  unaccompanied,  56 

Alternative,  56 

And  and  but,  50 

/IrtJ  and  or,  50 

which  and  and  wAo,  49 
,  56 

Apostrophe:  rules,  39;  contracted  word,  39;  plural  of  letters 
of  alphabet,  39;  possessive,  39;  possessive  adjectives,  39; 
with  nouns  ending  in  s,  5 1 


148  INDEX 

Appear  and  seem,  56 
Apt  and  likely,  56 
At  and  to,  50 
Avocation  and  vocation,  50 

B 

Began  and  begun,  40 

Beginning,  70;  prompt,  71,  72 

Beside  and  besides,  61 

Between,  56,  63 

Bibliography,  75,  115 

Biological  and  organic,  64 

Brackets:  rules,  38;  in  quotations,  38. 

Brainy,  56 

5w*  tffo/,  56 

/ty  and  which,  50 

C 

Can  and  way,  56 

Capitals:  29;  Dutch  titles,  30;  English  titles,  29;  foreign  titles, 
names  of  species,  30;  O  and  ofe,  40;  subjects  of  lectures,  29; 
titles  of  ancient  manuscripts,  30;  titles  in  French,  Italian, 
Spanish,  Scandinavian,  Latin,  German,  and  Danish,  29; 
to  indicate  black  face,  30;  to  indicate  bold  face.  30;  to  indi- 
cate capitals,  30;  to  indicate  italic  capitals,  30;  to  indicate 
small  capitals,  30 

Carbon  copies  of  manuscript,  104 

Case  and  patient,  62 

Case  histories,  83 

Case  reports,  83 

Captation  and  excavation,  44 

Centrifugalization  and  spinning,  44 

Certainly,  65 

Chapter:  87;  parts  of,  88 

Cheaply  and  cheap,  56 


INDEX  149 

Cities,  state  omitted,  28 

Claim  and  maintain,  56 

Colon:  rules,  36;  after  word  as  introduction,  37;  before  ex- 
tended quotation,  37 ;  before  list,  37 

Comma:  rules,  34;  absolute  phrases,  34;  adjectives,  35; 
appositives,  34;  clauses  of  compound  sentence,  36;  co- 
ordinate clauses,  34;  dependent  clause,  34;  direct  quotation, 
351  geographic  name,  34;  interjection,  35 ;  parenthetic  words, 
34;  pause,  34;  separation,  34;  series,  35;  substantive,  34; 
substantive  clause,  36 

Compare  to  and  compare  with,  50 

Conclusion  and  summary,  105 

Condition  and  problem,  52 

Conjunctions,  50 

Conscious  and  aware,  56 

Consider  and  regard,  63 

Construction,  78 

Continuous  and  continual,  57 

Coordinate  and  correlate,  63 

Copyright,  114 

Crystallized  phrases,  16 

D 

Dash:  rules,  37;  end  of  sentence,  37;  indiscriminate  use,  37; 
repetition,  37;  substitute  for  parentheses,  37;  summarizing 
word,  37;  with  comma,  37;  word  set  aoart,  37 

Data,  57 

Decided  and  decisive,  57 

Dernier  resort  and  last  resort,  43 

Different  from,  57,  50 

Differentiate  and  distinguish,  57,  63 

Disappointed  by  and  disappointed  in,  50 

Diseased  condition  and  disease  condition,  61 

Disseminated  and  scattered,  52 

Ditto  marks,  28 


150  INDEX 

Divisions  and  subdivisions,  40;  letters  and  numbers  for,  40 

Don'ts,  61 

Downward  path,  64 

Due  to  and  attributable  to,  63;  due  to  and  owing  to,  57 

During  and  in,  63 

E 

Each,  57 

Either. ..or  and  neither... nor,  50,  57 
Else,  57 

End,  70;  as  climax,  71,  72;  promptly,  72 
Enthuse,  57 

Eventuate  and  occwr,  63 
Evidence  and  testimony,  57 
Exclamation  point,  rules,  40 
Exclamatory  sentences,  65 
Exteriorise  and  «/ter,  44 


F 

Factor  and  cowse,  57 

False  concords,  4^ 

Female  and  woman,  57 

Fewer  and  /ess,  57 

Figures,  set  in,  27 

Firstly  and.  first,  57 

Footnotes:   29,  31 ;  at  end,  29;  numbers  in,  29;  symbols  in,  29 

Foreign  words,  use,  13;  plurals  retained,  54 

Former  and  latter,  57 

Frequently  and  commonly,  57,  6 1 


Genitive,  50 
£<>*,  58 
j,  58 


INDEX  151 

H 

Hanging  participle,  45 
Headings  of  manuscript,  104 
Healthy  and  healthful,  58 
Hence,  64 
High  and  tall,  58 
Him  and  his,  48 
Historical  notes,  74 
History  to  Garden  of  Eden,  61 
However,  47 
Hyphen,  rules,  40 

I 

I,  indirect  construction,  44,  52 
//  and  seeing  that,  46 
//  and  whether,  58 
Illustrations  of  manuscript,  105 
In  and  into,  50 
Index,  114 

Individual  and  person,  58 
Introduction,  9,  73;  timeworn,  71,  72 
Invention  of  words,  13 
Involve  and  involvement,  52 
Irrelevant  words,  16 
Italics :   foreign  words,  1 7 ;  genera  and  species,  1 8 ;  in  German 

and   English,    17;    letters   of   alphabet,    17;   list  of  words 

italicized,  18;  list  of  words  not  italicized,  19;  subheads,  17; 

symbols,    17;   titles,    18;   to   indicate,    18;   with   quotation 

marks,  18 

K 

Kind,  58 

L 

Last  and  latest,  58 
Latter,  58 


1 52  INDEX 

Legends  of  manuscript,  106 

Length  of  papers,  68 

Like  and  as,  58 

Locate  and  settle,  58 

Lovely,  58 

Luxuriant  and  luxurious,  58 


M 

Manuscript,  104;  margin  of,  104 
Materials  and  methods,  74 
Me,  48 

Measurements,  terms  of,  62 
Might  better,  49 
Minus  and  lacking,  58 
Miscellaneous  notes,  43 
Most  and  almost,  58 
Motivate  and  move,  63 

"N 

Necessities  and  necessaries,  58 

Neither  and  no  one,  58 

New  meanings  to  old  words,  13 

JWce,  58 

None,  58,  63;  and  no  one,  47 

JVo/  and  nor,  50,  58 

O 

Obscurity,  13 

Observation  and  observance,  58 
One,  44 

Opinion  and  notion,  44 
0//ter  Jfozn,  59 
Outline,  73 


INDEX  153 

P 

Pages  of  manuscript,  104 

Panacea,  59 

Paradox,  59 

Paragraph,  88 

Parenthesis  marks:    rules,  37;  cancel  word  or  passage,  38; 

emphasis,  38;  letter,  number,  or  symbol,  38;  title  of  book, 

38 ;  with  comma  or  period,  38 ;  word  about  which  something 

is  said  as  word,  38 
Passive,  double,  45 
Pathology,  62 
Patient  operated,  61 
People  and  individuals,  64. 
Per  and  each,  61 
Per  in  per  diem,  59 
Period:    rules,  34;  abbreviation,  34;  after  4to,  40;  after  per 

cent,  40;  denote  omission,  40;  end  sentence,  34;  with  dash 

after  side  head,  40 
Perpendicular  and  vertical,  59 
Perpetually,  59 

Phenomena  and  phenomenon,  63 
Photomicrographs,  magnification  of,  28 
Physiologic  and  physical,  64 
Piling  up  adjectives  and  adverbs,  65 
Place,  59 

Plurals,  accepted  English,  53 ;  foreign  retained,  54 
Poetic  heights,  65 
Point  of  view  and  view,  64 
Popular,  59 

Possessive,  50;  formation,  51 
Post  and  inform,  59 
Practical  and  practicable,  59 
Premature,  59 

Prepositions,  50;  examples  of  alien,  51 
Promise  and  assure,  59 


154  INDEX 

Pronoun,  relative,  and  number  of  verb,  47 

Proof:  1 08;  corrections  and  changes  in,  109;  page  proof,  pur- 
pose of,  no;  reader's  marks,  in 

Propose  and  purpose,  59 

Proposition  and  proposal,  59 

Providing  and  provided,  59 

Psychologic  and  psychical,  64 

Punctuation:  32;  after  such  as,  40;  apostrophe,  39;  art  of,  33; 
brackets,  38;  close,  32;  colon,  36;  comma,  34;  dash,  37; 
exclamation  point,  40;  function  of,  33;  in  English,  32;  in 
French,  32;  hyphen,  40;  legal  papers,  33;  letter  or  number 
indicating  division  in  enumerations,  40;  omission,  40,  41; 
open,  32;  parenthesis  marks,  37;  per  cent,  40;  period,  34; 
4to  and  8vo,  40;  question  mark,  37;  quotation  marks,  38; 
rules  for,  34;  semicolon,  36;  side  head,  40;  study  of,  32; 
technicalities  of,  33;  title  pages,  33,  41 

Q 

Question  and  affection,  52 

Question  mark:  rules,  37;  direct  question,  37;  within  paren- 
theses, 37 

Quite  and  quite  a  few,  59 

Quotation  marks:  rules,  38;  humor  and  irony,  39;  proper 
names,  39;  proverbial  expressions,  39;  quotation  within 
quotation,  39;  quotations,  38;  slang  or  nicknames,  39; 
technical  term,  39;  title  of  composition,  39;  with  comma  or 
period,  38;  with  question  mark,  38;  words  coined,  39 

Quoted  material,  30,  113 

R 

Raison  d'etre,  43 
Rare  disease,  61 

References,  49,  91 ;  abbreviations  in,  92;  data  for,  91 ;  definite- 
ness  and  accuracy  in,  93;  in  text  of  manuscript,  105 
Repetition  of  words,  16 


INDEX  155 


Researcher,  59 

Reside  and  live,  59 

Results,  74 

Retire  and  go  to  bed,  59 

Revision  of  manuscript,  94 

Role  and  part,  43 


Semicolon:  36;  clauses  of  compound  sentence,  36;  coordinate 
members  of  simple  or  complex  sentence,  36;  statement 
added  to  main  assertion,  35 

Sentence:  89;  of  fifty  words,  64 

Series  of  connected  papers,  69 

Set  in  figures:  27;  data  and  tabulations,  27;  numbers,  serial 
position,  27;  rules,  27;  sums  of  money,  27;  time,  27 

Shall  and  will,  48 

Should  and  would,  49        . 

Singular  and  plural  nouns,  5 1 

Slang,  15 

Slides,  lantern,  22,  31 

Sociological  and  social,  64 

Some  and  somewhat,  59 

Special  articles,  special  journals,  68 

Spell  out,  24;  rules,  25 

Splendid  and  brilliant,  59 

Split  infinitives,  64 

Spoken  address,  81 

Standardization,  44 

Startling  fact,  64 

Stale  and  say,  59 

Step  by  step,  64 

Stylists,  65 

Subject  matter,  66 

Subjunctive  mood,  46 

Summarize  briefly,  71,  72 


156  INDEX 

Summary  and  conclusion,  74 
Summary  and  resume,  43 
Symptomatology  and  symptoms,  61 


Tables:   21,  31;  condensation  in,  22;  folded,  22;  headings,  22; 

numbering,  22;  placing  in  text,  22;  size,  21;  slides,  22,  31 
Taboo  and  ban,  43 
Tense,  change  of,  47,  64;  past,  46;  past  for  present,  52;  use  of, 

85 

Than,  48 
That,  48 

Theory  and  opinion,  44 
r/iere  is  and  i/fere  exists,  52 
Thin  out  words,  64 
This  and  /to,  48 
Through  and  finished,  60 
Thus,  64 

Title,  98 ;  as  first  impression,  99 
Too  and  very,  47 
Toxicity  and  toxemia,  62 
Translate  the  written  sentence,  64 
Transpire  and  happen,  60 
Tubercular  and  tuberculous,  61 

U 

C/g/y  and  vicious,  60 
Unique  and  rare,  60 
£//>  ttn/i/  and  until,  61 
Usage,  ii 

V 

Fas/  majority,  61 
Verbal  and  era/,  60 
Vocabulary,  14 
Volume  of  output,  100 


INDEX  157 

W 

Was  and  were,  46 

Way  and  ways,  60 

Who  and  whom,  48 

Whose,  48 

WtV/  and  5*o//,  64 

WY/&  regard  to  and  wu/fc  a  w'«t>  /o,  50 

Witness  and  se«,  60 

Words,  accurate  use  of,  16;  English,  13;  unfamiliar,  16 

Would  better  and  had  better,  49 

Would  rather  and  Aad  rather,  49 


y»M  and  7,  48 
Fow  and  yours,  44 


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